{"id":83,"date":"2015-05-23T03:33:21","date_gmt":"2015-05-23T03:33:21","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/masterysoc1x6xmaster\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=83"},"modified":"2015-06-19T17:53:41","modified_gmt":"2015-06-19T17:53:41","slug":"theoretical-perspectives-on-society","status":"web-only","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/chapter\/theoretical-perspectives-on-society\/","title":{"raw":"Reading: Theoretical Perspectives on Society","rendered":"Reading: Theoretical Perspectives on Society"},"content":{"raw":"&nbsp;\r\n<div data-type=\"abstract\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Describe Durkhiem\u2019s functionalist view of society<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Understand the conflict theorist view of society<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Explain Marx\u2019s concepts of class and alienation<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Identify how symbolic interactionists understand society<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id2101621\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A photo of Warren Buffett.\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A photo of Warren Buffett.\">\r\n<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"235\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/Figure_04_02_01a.jpg\" alt=\"A photo of Warren Buffett.\" width=\"235\" height=\"707\" data-media-type=\"image\/wmf\" \/> Warren Buffett\u2019s ideas about taxation and spending habits of the very wealthy are controversial, particularly since they raise questions about America\u2019s embedded system of class structure and social power. The three major sociological paradigms differ in their perspectives on these issues. (Photo courtesy of Medill DC\/flickr)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2081616\">While many sociologists have contributed to research on society and social interaction, three thinkers form the base of modern-day perspectives. \u00c9mile Durkheim, Karl Marx, and Max Weber developed different theoretical approaches to help us understand the way societies function.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"h2_01\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">\u00c9mile Durkheim and Functionalism<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1339593\">As a functionalist, \u00c9mile Durkheim\u2019s (1858\u20131917) perspective on society stressed the necessary interconnectivity of all of its elements. To Durkheim, society was greater than the sum of its parts. He asserted that individual behavior was not the same as collective behavior and that studying collective behavior was quite different from studying an individual\u2019s actions. Durkheim called the communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society the <span id=\"import-auto-id1684729\" data-type=\"term\">collective conscience<\/span>. In his quest to understand what causes individuals to act in similar and predictable ways, he wrote, \u201cIf I do not submit to the conventions of society, if in my dress I do not conform to the customs observed in my country and in my class, the ridicule I provoke, the social isolation in which I am kept, produce, although in an attenuated form, the same effects as punishment\u201d (Durkheim 1895). Durkheim also believed that <span id=\"import-auto-id2105149\" data-type=\"term\">social integration<\/span>, or the strength of ties that people have to their social groups, was a key factor in social life.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1315192\">Following the ideas of Comte and Spencer, Durkheim likened society to that of a living organism, in which each organ plays a necessary role in keeping the being alive. Even the socially deviant members of society are necessary, Durkheim argued, as punishments for deviance affirm established cultural values and norms. That is, punishment of a crime reaffirms our moral consciousness. \u201cA crime is a crime because we condemn it,\u201d Durkheim wrote in 1893. \u201cAn act offends the common consciousness not because it is criminal, but it is criminal because it offends that consciousness\u201d (Durkheim 1893). Durkheim called these elements of society \u201csocial facts.\u201d By this, he meant that social forces were to be considered real and existed outside the individual.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1344055\">As an observer of his social world, Durkheim was not entirely satisfied with the direction of society in his day. His primary concern was that the cultural glue that held society together was failing, and people were becoming more divided. In his book <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Division of Labor in Society<\/em> (1893), Durkheim argued that as society grew more complex, social order made the transition from mechanical to organic.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2762174\">Preindustrial societies, Durkheim explained, were held together by <span id=\"import-auto-id1814214\" data-type=\"term\">mechanical solidarity<\/span>, a type of social order maintained by the collective consciousness of a culture. Societies with mechanical solidarity act in a mechanical fashion; things are done mostly because they have always been done that way. This type of thinking was common in preindustrial societies where strong bonds of kinship and a low division of labor created shared morals and values among people, such as hunter-gatherer groups. When people tend to do the same type of work, Durkheim argued, they tend to think and act alike.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1500541\">In industrial societies, mechanical solidarity is replaced with <span id=\"import-auto-id2797848\" data-type=\"term\">organic solidarity<\/span>, which is social order based around an acceptance of economic and social differences. In capitalist societies, Durkheim wrote, division of labor becomes so specialized that everyone is doing different things. Instead of punishing members of a society for failure to assimilate to common values, organic solidarity allows people with differing values to coexist. Laws exist as formalized morals and are based on restitution rather than revenge.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id900210\">While the transition from mechanical to organic solidarity is, in the long run, advantageous for a society, Durkheim noted that it can be a time of chaos and \u201cnormlessness.\u201d One of the outcomes of the transition is something he called social <span id=\"import-auto-id1220228\" data-type=\"term\">anomie<\/span>. Anomie\u2014literally, \u201cwithout law\u201d\u2014is a situation in which society no longer has the support of a firm collective consciousness. Collective norms are weakened. People, while more interdependent to accomplish complex tasks, are also alienated from each other. Anomie is experienced in times of social uncertainty, such as war or a great upturn or downturn in the economy. As societies reach an advanced stage of organic solidarity, they avoid anomie by redeveloping a set of shared norms. According to Durkheim, once a society achieves organic solidarity, it has finished its development.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"h2_02\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Karl Marx and Conflict Theory<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1202127\">Karl Marx (1818\u20131883) is certainly among the most significant social thinkers in recent history. While there are many critics of his work, it is still widely respected and influential. For Marx, society\u2019s constructions were predicated upon the idea of \u201cbase and superstructure.\u201d This term refers to the idea that a society\u2019s economic character forms its base, upon which rests the culture and social institutions, the superstructure. For Marx, it is the base (economy) that determines what a society will be like.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"fig0402_02\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A triangle diagram with the economy considered the base, and government, family, religion, education, and culture considered the superstructure.\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A triangle diagram with the economy considered the base, and government, family, religion, education, and culture considered the superstructure.\">\r\n<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"322\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/Figure_04_02_02a.jpg\" alt=\"A triangle diagram with the economy considered the base, and government, family, religion, education, and culture considered the superstructure.\" width=\"322\" height=\"379\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Karl Marx asserted that all elements of a society\u2019s structure depend on its economic structure.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2726536\">Additionally, Marx saw conflict in society as the primary means of change. Economically, he saw conflict existing between the owners of the means of production\u2014the <span id=\"import-auto-id1489449\" data-type=\"term\">bourgeoisie<\/span>\u2014and the laborers, called the <span id=\"import-auto-id1735628\" data-type=\"term\">proletariat<\/span>.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2794373\">Marx maintained that these conflicts appeared consistently throughout history during times of social revolution. These revolutions or \u201cclass antagonisms\u201d as he called them, were a result of one class dominating another. Most recently, with the end of feudalism, a new revolutionary class he called the bourgeoisie dominated the proletariat laborers. The bourgeoisie were revolutionary in the sense that they represented a radical change in the structure of society. In Marx\u2019s words, \u201cSociety as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other\u2014Bourgeoisie and Proletariat\u201d (Marx and Engels 1848).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id910122\">In the mid-nineteenth century, as industrialization was booming, industrial employers, the \"owners of the means of production\" in Marx's terms, became more and more exploitative toward the working class. The large manufacturers of steel were particularly ruthless, and their facilities became popularly dubbed \u201csatanic mills\u201d based on a poem by William Blake. Marx\u2019s colleague and friend, Frederick Engels, wrote <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Condition of the Working-Class in England<\/em> in 1844, which described in detail the horrid conditions.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<blockquote id=\"fs-id2224235\">Such is the Old Town of Manchester, and on re-reading my description, I am forced to admit that instead of being exaggerated, it is far from black enough to convey a true impression of the filth, ruin, and uninhabitableness, the defiance of all considerations of cleanliness, ventilation, and health which characterise the construction of this single district, containing at least twenty to thirty thousand inhabitants. And such a district exists in the heart of the second city of England, the first manufacturing city of the world.<\/blockquote>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2768409\">Add to that the long hours, the use of child labor, and exposure to extreme conditions of heat, cold, and toxic chemicals, and it is no wonder that Marx and Engels referred to <span data-type=\"term\">capitalism<\/span>, which is a way of organizing an economy so that the things that are used to make and transport products (such as land, oil, factories, ships, etc.) are owned by individual people and companies rather than by the government, as the \u201cdictatorship of the bourgeoisie.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id2020419\"><figure id=\"eip-id1427592\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"\">\r\n<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"175\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/Figure_04_02_03a.jpg\" alt=\"Portrait of an wizened Karl Marx\" width=\"175\" height=\"493\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/> Karl Marx (left) and Friedrich Engels (right) analyzed differences in social power between \u201chave\u201d and \u201chave-not\u201d groups. (Photo (a) courtesy of Wikimedia Commons; Photo (b) courtesy of George Lester\/Wikimedia Commons)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figure><figure id=\"eip-id1854942\"><span id=\"eip-id2683462\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Photos of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.\">\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/Figure_04_02_04a.jpg\" alt=\"Photos of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.\" width=\"175\" height=\"429\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/><\/span><\/figure><\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1773934\">For Marx, what we do defines who we are. In historical terms, in spite of the persistent nature of one class dominating another, some element of humanity existed. There was at least some connection between the worker and the product, augmented by the natural conditions of seasons and the rise and fall of the sun, such as we see in an agricultural society. But with the bourgeoisie revolution and the rise of industry and capitalism, the worker now worked for wages alone. His relationship to his efforts was no longer of a human nature, but based on artificial conditions.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1336420\">Marx described modern society in terms of alienation. <span id=\"import-auto-id1362409\" data-type=\"term\">Alienation<\/span> refers to the condition in which the individual is isolated and divorced from his or her society, work, or the sense of self. Marx defined four specific types of alienation.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1665248\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">Alienation from the product of one\u2019s labor.<\/em> An industrial worker does not have the opportunity to relate to the product he labors on. Instead of training for years as a watchmaker, an unskilled worker can get a job at a watch factory pressing buttons to seal pieces together. The worker does not care if he is making watches or cars, simply that the job exists. In the same way, a worker may not even know or care what product to which he is contributing. A worker on a Ford assembly line may spend all day installing windows on car doors without ever seeing the rest of the car. A cannery worker can spend a lifetime cleaning fish without ever knowing what product they are used for.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1377092\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">Alienation from the process of one\u2019s labor.<\/em> A worker does not control the conditions of her job because she does not own the means of production. If a person is hired to work in a fast food restaurant, she is expected to make the food the way she is taught. All ingredients must be combined in a particular order and in a particular quantity; there is no room for creativity or change. An employee at Burger King cannot decide to change the spices used on the fries in the same way that an employee on a Ford assembly line cannot decide to place a car\u2019s headlights in a different position. Everything is decided by the bourgeoisie who then dictate orders to the laborers.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1363254\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">Alienation from others.<\/em> Workers compete, rather than cooperate. Employees vie for time slots, bonuses, and job security. Even when a worker clocks out at night and goes home, the competition does not end. As Marx commented in <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Communist Manifesto<\/em> (1848), \u201cNo sooner is the exploitation of the laborer by the manufacturer, so far at an end, that he receives his wages in cash, than he is set upon by the other portion of the bourgeoisie, the landlord, the shopkeeper, the pawnbroker.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1385407\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">Alienation from one\u2019s self.<\/em> A final outcome of industrialization is a loss of connectivity between a worker and her occupation. Because there is nothing that ties a worker to her labor, there is no longer a sense of self. Instead of being able to take pride in an identity such as being a watchmaker, automobile builder, or chef, a person is simply a cog in the machine.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1304547\">Taken as a whole, then, alienation in modern society means that an individual has no control over his life. Even in feudal societies, a person controlled the manner of his labor as to when and how it was carried out. But why, then, does the modern working class not rise up and rebel? (Indeed, Marx predicted that this would be the ultimate outcome and collapse of capitalism.)<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1299070\">Another idea that Marx developed is the concept of <span id=\"import-auto-id2851133\" data-type=\"term\">false consciousness<\/span>. False consciousness is a condition in which the beliefs, ideals, or ideology of a person are not in the person\u2019s own best interest. In fact, it is the ideology of the dominant class (here, the bourgeoisie capitalists) that is imposed upon the proletariat. Ideas such as the emphasis of competition over cooperation, or of hard work being its own reward, clearly benefit the owners of industry. Therefore, workers are less likely to question their place in society and assume individual responsibility for existing conditions.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1473107\">In order for society to overcome false consciousness, Marx proposed that it be replaced with <span id=\"import-auto-id1551262\" data-type=\"term\">class consciousness<\/span>, the awareness of one\u2019s rank in society. Instead of existing as a \u201cclass in itself,\u201d the proletariat must become a \u201cclass for itself\u201d in order to produce social change (Marx and Engels 1848), meaning that instead of just being an inert strata of society, the class could become an advocate for social improvements. Only once society entered this state of political consciousness would it be ready for a social revolution.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id1662522\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A man is shown using a machine to install car parts on an assembly line.\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A man is shown using a machine to install car parts on an assembly line.\">\r\n<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"279\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/FIgure_04_02_05a.jpg\" alt=\"A man is shown using a machine to install car parts on an assembly line.\" width=\"279\" height=\"372\" data-media-type=\"image\/png\" \/> An assembly line worker installs car parts with the aid of complex machinery. Has technology made this type of labor more or less alienating? (Photo courtesy of Carol Highsmith\/Wikimedia Commons)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figure><\/section><section id=\"h2_03\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Max Weber and Symbolic Interactionism<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2019929\">While Karl Marx may be one of the best-known thinkers of the nineteenth century, Max Weber is certainly one of the greatest influences in the field of sociology. Like the other social thinkers discussed here, he was concerned with the important changes taking place in Western society with the advent of industrialization. And, like Marx and Durkheim, he feared that industrialization would have negative effects on individuals.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2418025\">Weber\u2019s primary focus on the structure of society lay in the elements of class, status, and power. Similar to Marx, Weber saw class as economically determined. Society, he believed, was split between owners and laborers. Status, on the other hand, was based on noneconomic factors such as education, kinship, and religion. Both status and class determined an individual\u2019s power, or influence over ideas. Unlike Marx, Weber believed that these ideas formed the base of society.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1348490\">Weber\u2019s analysis of modern society centered on the concept of <span id=\"import-auto-id2688589\" data-type=\"term\">rationalization<\/span>. A rational society is one built around logic and efficiency rather than morality or tradition. To Weber, capitalism is entirely rational. Although this leads to efficiency and merit-based success, it can have negative effects when taken to the extreme. In some modern societies, this is seen when rigid routines and strict design lead to a mechanized work environment and a focus on producing identical products in every location.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1362907\">Another example of the extreme conditions of rationality can be found in Charlie Chaplin\u2019s classic film <em data-effect=\"italics\">Modern Times<\/em> (1936). Chaplin\u2019s character performs a routine task to the point where he cannot stop his motions even while away from the job. Indeed, today we even have a recognized medical condition that results from such tasks, known as \u201crepetitive stress syndrome.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1331807\">Weber was also unlike his predecessors in that he was more interested in how individuals experienced societal divisions than in the divisions themselves. The symbolic interactionism theory, the third of the three most recognized theories of sociology, is based on Weber\u2019s early ideas that emphasize the viewpoint of the individual and how that individual relates to society. For Weber, the culmination of industrialization, rationalization, and the like results in what he referred to as the <span id=\"import-auto-id2678857\" data-type=\"term\">iron cage<\/span>, in which the individual is trapped by institutions and bureaucracy. This leads to a sense of \u201cdisenchantment of the world,\u201d a phrase Weber used to describe the final condition of humanity. Indeed a dark prediction, but one that has, at least to some degree, been borne out (Gerth and Mills 1918). In a rationalized, modern society, we have supermarkets instead of family-owned stores. We have chain restaurants instead of local eateries. Superstores that offer a multitude of merchandise have replaced independent businesses that focused on one product line, such as hardware, groceries, automotive repair, or clothing. Shopping malls offer retail stores, restaurants, fitness centers, even condominiums. This change may be rational, but is it universally desirable?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id1220954\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A long line of cubicles is shown.\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A long line of cubicles is shown.\">\r\n<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"275\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/Figure_04_02_06a.jpg\" alt=\"A long line of cubicles is shown.\" width=\"275\" height=\"439\" data-media-type=\"image\/png\" \/> Cubicles are used to maximize individual workspace in an office. Such structures may be rational, but they are also isolating. (Photo courtesy of Tim Patterson\/flickr)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figure><\/section>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1295165\" class=\"note sociology-big-picture\" data-type=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" data-label=\"\">\r\n<div class=\"title textbox shaded\" data-type=\"title\"><strong><strong>The Protestant Work Ethic<\/strong><\/strong>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1487080\">In a series of essays in 1904, Max Weber presented the idea of the <em data-effect=\"italics\">Protestant work ethic<\/em>, a new attitude toward work based on the Calvinist principle of predestination. In the sixteenth century, Europe was shaken by the Protestant Revolution. Religious leaders such as Martin Luther and John Calvin argued against the Catholic Church\u2019s belief in salvation through obedience. While Catholic leaders emphasized the importance of religious dogma and performing good deeds as a gateway to Heaven, Protestants believed that inner grace, or faith in God, was enough to achieve salvation.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1471597\">John Calvin in particular popularized the Christian concept of predestination, the idea that all events\u2014including salvation\u2014have already been decided by God. Because followers were never sure whether they had been chosen to enter Heaven or Hell, they looked for signs in their everyday lives. If a person was hard-working and successful, he was likely to be one of the chosen. If a person was lazy or simply indifferent, he was likely to be one of the damned.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2870399\">Weber argued that this mentality encouraged people to work hard for personal gain; after all, why should one help the unfortunate if they were already damned? Over time, the Protestant work ethic spread and became the foundation for capitalism.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"summary\" class=\"section-summary\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"section-summary\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Summary<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2103149\">\u00c9mile Durkheim believed that as societies advance, they make the transition from mechanical to organic solidarity. For Karl Marx, society exists in terms of class conflict. With the rise of capitalism, workers become alienated from themselves and others in society. Sociologist Max Weber noted that the rationalization of society can be taken to unhealthy extremes.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.openassessments.com\/assessments\/321\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"shortanswer\" class=\"short-answer\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Short Answer<\/h2>\r\n<div id=\"sh_exercise01\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\r\n<div id=\"sh_04_02_01\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1311865\">Choose two of the three sociologists discussed here (Durkheim, Marx, Weber), and use their arguments to explain a current social event such as the Occupy movement. Do their theories hold up under modern scrutiny?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"sh_exercise02\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\r\n<div id=\"sh_04_02_02\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1825112\">Think of the ways workers are alienated from the product and process of their jobs. How can these concepts be applied to students and their educations?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fresearch\" class=\"further-research\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"further-research\">\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\"><\/h1>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"glossary-title\">Glossary<\/h2>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2726501\" class=\"definition\"><dt>alienation<\/dt><dd id=\"glo_04_02_01\">an individual\u2019s isolation from his society, his work, and his sense of self<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id2886669\" class=\"definition\"><dt>anomie<\/dt><dd id=\"glo_04_02_02\">a situation in which society no longer has the support of a firm collective consciousness<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id2105449\" class=\"definition\"><dt>bourgeoisie<\/dt><dd id=\"glo_04_02_03\">the owners of the means of production in a society<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"fs-id1170519638378\" class=\"definition\"><dt>capitalism<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id1170522759741\">a way of organizing an economy so that the things that are used to make and transport products (such as land, oil, factories, ships, etc.) are owned by individual people and companies rather than by the government<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id1947673\" class=\"definition\"><dt>class consciousness<\/dt><dd id=\"glo_04_02_04\">the awareness of one\u2019s rank in society<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id2367788\" class=\"definition\"><dt>collective conscience<\/dt><dd id=\"glo_04_02_05\">the communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id2865331\" class=\"definition\"><dt>false consciousness<\/dt><dd id=\"glo_04_02_06\">a person\u2019s beliefs and ideology that are in conflict with her best interests<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id1374789\" class=\"definition\"><dt>iron cage<\/dt><dd id=\"glo_04_02_07\">a situation in which an individual is trapped by social institutions<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id2868304\" class=\"definition\"><dt>mechanical solidarity<\/dt><dd id=\"glo_04_02_08\">a type of social order maintained by the collective consciousness of a culture<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id851208\" class=\"definition\"><dt>organic solidarity<\/dt><dd id=\"glo_04_02_09\">a type of social order based around an acceptance of economic and social differences<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id1318198\" class=\"definition\"><dt>proletariat<\/dt><dd id=\"glo_04_02_10\">the laborers in a society<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id1353404\" class=\"definition\"><dt>rationalization<\/dt><dd id=\"glo_04_02_11\">a belief that modern society should be built around logic and efficiency rather than morality or tradition<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id2094846\" class=\"definition\"><dt>social integration<\/dt><dd id=\"glo_04_02_12\">how strongly a person is connected to his or her social group<\/dd><\/dl>\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\"><\/h1>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Further Research<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2678828\">One of the most influential pieces of writing in modern history was Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels\u2019 <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Communist Manifesto<\/em>. Visit this site to read the original document that spurred revolutions around the world: <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/Communist-Party\">http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/Communist-Party<\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"references\" class=\"references\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"references\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">References<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1819972\">Durkheim, \u00c9mile. 1960 [1893]. <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Division of Labor in Society<\/em>. Translated by George Simpson. New York: Free Press.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1310487\">Durkheim, \u00c9mile. 1982 [1895]. <em data-effect=\"italics\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">The Rules of the Sociological Method<\/em><\/em>. Translated by W. D. Halls. New York: Free Press.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"eip-646\">Engels, Friedrich. 1892. <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Condition of the Working-Class in England in 1844<\/em><em data-effect=\"italics\">. <\/em>London: Swan Sonnenschein &amp; Co.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1348459\">Geographia. 1998. \u201cThe Bedouin Way.\u201d Geograpia.com. Retrieved January 4, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.geographia.com\/egypt\/sinai\/bedouin02.htm\">http:\/\/www.geographia.com\/egypt\/sinai\/bedouin02.htm<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1364865\">Gerth, H. H., and C. Wright Mills. 1946. <em data-effect=\"italics\">From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology<\/em>. New York: Oxford University Press.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2101337\">Marx, Karl and Friedrich Engels. 1998 [1848]. <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Communist Manifesto<\/em>. New York: Penguin Group.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div data-type=\"glossary\"><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"abstract\">\n<ul>\n<li>Describe Durkhiem\u2019s functionalist view of society<\/li>\n<li>Understand the conflict theorist view of society<\/li>\n<li>Explain Marx\u2019s concepts of class and alienation<\/li>\n<li>Identify how symbolic interactionists understand society<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id2101621\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A photo of Warren Buffett.\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A photo of Warren Buffett.\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 245px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/Figure_04_02_01a.jpg\" alt=\"A photo of Warren Buffett.\" width=\"235\" height=\"707\" data-media-type=\"image\/wmf\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Warren Buffett\u2019s ideas about taxation and spending habits of the very wealthy are controversial, particularly since they raise questions about America\u2019s embedded system of class structure and social power. The three major sociological paradigms differ in their perspectives on these issues. (Photo courtesy of Medill DC\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2081616\">While many sociologists have contributed to research on society and social interaction, three thinkers form the base of modern-day perspectives. \u00c9mile Durkheim, Karl Marx, and Max Weber developed different theoretical approaches to help us understand the way societies function.<\/p>\n<section id=\"h2_01\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">\u00c9mile Durkheim and Functionalism<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1339593\">As a functionalist, \u00c9mile Durkheim\u2019s (1858\u20131917) perspective on society stressed the necessary interconnectivity of all of its elements. To Durkheim, society was greater than the sum of its parts. He asserted that individual behavior was not the same as collective behavior and that studying collective behavior was quite different from studying an individual\u2019s actions. Durkheim called the communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society the <span id=\"import-auto-id1684729\" data-type=\"term\">collective conscience<\/span>. In his quest to understand what causes individuals to act in similar and predictable ways, he wrote, \u201cIf I do not submit to the conventions of society, if in my dress I do not conform to the customs observed in my country and in my class, the ridicule I provoke, the social isolation in which I am kept, produce, although in an attenuated form, the same effects as punishment\u201d (Durkheim 1895). Durkheim also believed that <span id=\"import-auto-id2105149\" data-type=\"term\">social integration<\/span>, or the strength of ties that people have to their social groups, was a key factor in social life.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1315192\">Following the ideas of Comte and Spencer, Durkheim likened society to that of a living organism, in which each organ plays a necessary role in keeping the being alive. Even the socially deviant members of society are necessary, Durkheim argued, as punishments for deviance affirm established cultural values and norms. That is, punishment of a crime reaffirms our moral consciousness. \u201cA crime is a crime because we condemn it,\u201d Durkheim wrote in 1893. \u201cAn act offends the common consciousness not because it is criminal, but it is criminal because it offends that consciousness\u201d (Durkheim 1893). Durkheim called these elements of society \u201csocial facts.\u201d By this, he meant that social forces were to be considered real and existed outside the individual.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1344055\">As an observer of his social world, Durkheim was not entirely satisfied with the direction of society in his day. His primary concern was that the cultural glue that held society together was failing, and people were becoming more divided. In his book <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Division of Labor in Society<\/em> (1893), Durkheim argued that as society grew more complex, social order made the transition from mechanical to organic.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2762174\">Preindustrial societies, Durkheim explained, were held together by <span id=\"import-auto-id1814214\" data-type=\"term\">mechanical solidarity<\/span>, a type of social order maintained by the collective consciousness of a culture. Societies with mechanical solidarity act in a mechanical fashion; things are done mostly because they have always been done that way. This type of thinking was common in preindustrial societies where strong bonds of kinship and a low division of labor created shared morals and values among people, such as hunter-gatherer groups. When people tend to do the same type of work, Durkheim argued, they tend to think and act alike.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1500541\">In industrial societies, mechanical solidarity is replaced with <span id=\"import-auto-id2797848\" data-type=\"term\">organic solidarity<\/span>, which is social order based around an acceptance of economic and social differences. In capitalist societies, Durkheim wrote, division of labor becomes so specialized that everyone is doing different things. Instead of punishing members of a society for failure to assimilate to common values, organic solidarity allows people with differing values to coexist. Laws exist as formalized morals and are based on restitution rather than revenge.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id900210\">While the transition from mechanical to organic solidarity is, in the long run, advantageous for a society, Durkheim noted that it can be a time of chaos and \u201cnormlessness.\u201d One of the outcomes of the transition is something he called social <span id=\"import-auto-id1220228\" data-type=\"term\">anomie<\/span>. Anomie\u2014literally, \u201cwithout law\u201d\u2014is a situation in which society no longer has the support of a firm collective consciousness. Collective norms are weakened. People, while more interdependent to accomplish complex tasks, are also alienated from each other. Anomie is experienced in times of social uncertainty, such as war or a great upturn or downturn in the economy. As societies reach an advanced stage of organic solidarity, they avoid anomie by redeveloping a set of shared norms. According to Durkheim, once a society achieves organic solidarity, it has finished its development.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"h2_02\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Karl Marx and Conflict Theory<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1202127\">Karl Marx (1818\u20131883) is certainly among the most significant social thinkers in recent history. While there are many critics of his work, it is still widely respected and influential. For Marx, society\u2019s constructions were predicated upon the idea of \u201cbase and superstructure.\u201d This term refers to the idea that a society\u2019s economic character forms its base, upon which rests the culture and social institutions, the superstructure. For Marx, it is the base (economy) that determines what a society will be like.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"fig0402_02\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A triangle diagram with the economy considered the base, and government, family, religion, education, and culture considered the superstructure.\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A triangle diagram with the economy considered the base, and government, family, religion, education, and culture considered the superstructure.\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 332px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/Figure_04_02_02a.jpg\" alt=\"A triangle diagram with the economy considered the base, and government, family, religion, education, and culture considered the superstructure.\" width=\"322\" height=\"379\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Karl Marx asserted that all elements of a society\u2019s structure depend on its economic structure.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2726536\">Additionally, Marx saw conflict in society as the primary means of change. Economically, he saw conflict existing between the owners of the means of production\u2014the <span id=\"import-auto-id1489449\" data-type=\"term\">bourgeoisie<\/span>\u2014and the laborers, called the <span id=\"import-auto-id1735628\" data-type=\"term\">proletariat<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2794373\">Marx maintained that these conflicts appeared consistently throughout history during times of social revolution. These revolutions or \u201cclass antagonisms\u201d as he called them, were a result of one class dominating another. Most recently, with the end of feudalism, a new revolutionary class he called the bourgeoisie dominated the proletariat laborers. The bourgeoisie were revolutionary in the sense that they represented a radical change in the structure of society. In Marx\u2019s words, \u201cSociety as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other\u2014Bourgeoisie and Proletariat\u201d (Marx and Engels 1848).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id910122\">In the mid-nineteenth century, as industrialization was booming, industrial employers, the &#8220;owners of the means of production&#8221; in Marx&#8217;s terms, became more and more exploitative toward the working class. The large manufacturers of steel were particularly ruthless, and their facilities became popularly dubbed \u201csatanic mills\u201d based on a poem by William Blake. Marx\u2019s colleague and friend, Frederick Engels, wrote <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Condition of the Working-Class in England<\/em> in 1844, which described in detail the horrid conditions.<\/p>\n<blockquote id=\"fs-id2224235\"><p>Such is the Old Town of Manchester, and on re-reading my description, I am forced to admit that instead of being exaggerated, it is far from black enough to convey a true impression of the filth, ruin, and uninhabitableness, the defiance of all considerations of cleanliness, ventilation, and health which characterise the construction of this single district, containing at least twenty to thirty thousand inhabitants. And such a district exists in the heart of the second city of England, the first manufacturing city of the world.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2768409\">Add to that the long hours, the use of child labor, and exposure to extreme conditions of heat, cold, and toxic chemicals, and it is no wonder that Marx and Engels referred to <span data-type=\"term\">capitalism<\/span>, which is a way of organizing an economy so that the things that are used to make and transport products (such as land, oil, factories, ships, etc.) are owned by individual people and companies rather than by the government, as the \u201cdictatorship of the bourgeoisie.\u201d<\/p>\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id2020419\">\n<figure id=\"eip-id1427592\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 185px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/Figure_04_02_03a.jpg\" alt=\"Portrait of an wizened Karl Marx\" width=\"175\" height=\"493\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Karl Marx (left) and Friedrich Engels (right) analyzed differences in social power between \u201chave\u201d and \u201chave-not\u201d groups. (Photo (a) courtesy of Wikimedia Commons; Photo (b) courtesy of George Lester\/Wikimedia Commons)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<figure id=\"eip-id1854942\"><span id=\"eip-id2683462\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Photos of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.\"><br \/>\n<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/Figure_04_02_04a.jpg\" alt=\"Photos of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.\" width=\"175\" height=\"429\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/><\/span><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1773934\">For Marx, what we do defines who we are. In historical terms, in spite of the persistent nature of one class dominating another, some element of humanity existed. There was at least some connection between the worker and the product, augmented by the natural conditions of seasons and the rise and fall of the sun, such as we see in an agricultural society. But with the bourgeoisie revolution and the rise of industry and capitalism, the worker now worked for wages alone. His relationship to his efforts was no longer of a human nature, but based on artificial conditions.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1336420\">Marx described modern society in terms of alienation. <span id=\"import-auto-id1362409\" data-type=\"term\">Alienation<\/span> refers to the condition in which the individual is isolated and divorced from his or her society, work, or the sense of self. Marx defined four specific types of alienation.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1665248\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">Alienation from the product of one\u2019s labor.<\/em> An industrial worker does not have the opportunity to relate to the product he labors on. Instead of training for years as a watchmaker, an unskilled worker can get a job at a watch factory pressing buttons to seal pieces together. The worker does not care if he is making watches or cars, simply that the job exists. In the same way, a worker may not even know or care what product to which he is contributing. A worker on a Ford assembly line may spend all day installing windows on car doors without ever seeing the rest of the car. A cannery worker can spend a lifetime cleaning fish without ever knowing what product they are used for.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1377092\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">Alienation from the process of one\u2019s labor.<\/em> A worker does not control the conditions of her job because she does not own the means of production. If a person is hired to work in a fast food restaurant, she is expected to make the food the way she is taught. All ingredients must be combined in a particular order and in a particular quantity; there is no room for creativity or change. An employee at Burger King cannot decide to change the spices used on the fries in the same way that an employee on a Ford assembly line cannot decide to place a car\u2019s headlights in a different position. Everything is decided by the bourgeoisie who then dictate orders to the laborers.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1363254\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">Alienation from others.<\/em> Workers compete, rather than cooperate. Employees vie for time slots, bonuses, and job security. Even when a worker clocks out at night and goes home, the competition does not end. As Marx commented in <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Communist Manifesto<\/em> (1848), \u201cNo sooner is the exploitation of the laborer by the manufacturer, so far at an end, that he receives his wages in cash, than he is set upon by the other portion of the bourgeoisie, the landlord, the shopkeeper, the pawnbroker.\u201d<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1385407\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">Alienation from one\u2019s self.<\/em> A final outcome of industrialization is a loss of connectivity between a worker and her occupation. Because there is nothing that ties a worker to her labor, there is no longer a sense of self. Instead of being able to take pride in an identity such as being a watchmaker, automobile builder, or chef, a person is simply a cog in the machine.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1304547\">Taken as a whole, then, alienation in modern society means that an individual has no control over his life. Even in feudal societies, a person controlled the manner of his labor as to when and how it was carried out. But why, then, does the modern working class not rise up and rebel? (Indeed, Marx predicted that this would be the ultimate outcome and collapse of capitalism.)<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1299070\">Another idea that Marx developed is the concept of <span id=\"import-auto-id2851133\" data-type=\"term\">false consciousness<\/span>. False consciousness is a condition in which the beliefs, ideals, or ideology of a person are not in the person\u2019s own best interest. In fact, it is the ideology of the dominant class (here, the bourgeoisie capitalists) that is imposed upon the proletariat. Ideas such as the emphasis of competition over cooperation, or of hard work being its own reward, clearly benefit the owners of industry. Therefore, workers are less likely to question their place in society and assume individual responsibility for existing conditions.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1473107\">In order for society to overcome false consciousness, Marx proposed that it be replaced with <span id=\"import-auto-id1551262\" data-type=\"term\">class consciousness<\/span>, the awareness of one\u2019s rank in society. Instead of existing as a \u201cclass in itself,\u201d the proletariat must become a \u201cclass for itself\u201d in order to produce social change (Marx and Engels 1848), meaning that instead of just being an inert strata of society, the class could become an advocate for social improvements. Only once society entered this state of political consciousness would it be ready for a social revolution.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id1662522\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A man is shown using a machine to install car parts on an assembly line.\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A man is shown using a machine to install car parts on an assembly line.\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 289px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/FIgure_04_02_05a.jpg\" alt=\"A man is shown using a machine to install car parts on an assembly line.\" width=\"279\" height=\"372\" data-media-type=\"image\/png\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">An assembly line worker installs car parts with the aid of complex machinery. Has technology made this type of labor more or less alienating? (Photo courtesy of Carol Highsmith\/Wikimedia Commons)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"h2_03\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Max Weber and Symbolic Interactionism<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2019929\">While Karl Marx may be one of the best-known thinkers of the nineteenth century, Max Weber is certainly one of the greatest influences in the field of sociology. Like the other social thinkers discussed here, he was concerned with the important changes taking place in Western society with the advent of industrialization. And, like Marx and Durkheim, he feared that industrialization would have negative effects on individuals.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2418025\">Weber\u2019s primary focus on the structure of society lay in the elements of class, status, and power. Similar to Marx, Weber saw class as economically determined. Society, he believed, was split between owners and laborers. Status, on the other hand, was based on noneconomic factors such as education, kinship, and religion. Both status and class determined an individual\u2019s power, or influence over ideas. Unlike Marx, Weber believed that these ideas formed the base of society.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1348490\">Weber\u2019s analysis of modern society centered on the concept of <span id=\"import-auto-id2688589\" data-type=\"term\">rationalization<\/span>. A rational society is one built around logic and efficiency rather than morality or tradition. To Weber, capitalism is entirely rational. Although this leads to efficiency and merit-based success, it can have negative effects when taken to the extreme. In some modern societies, this is seen when rigid routines and strict design lead to a mechanized work environment and a focus on producing identical products in every location.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1362907\">Another example of the extreme conditions of rationality can be found in Charlie Chaplin\u2019s classic film <em data-effect=\"italics\">Modern Times<\/em> (1936). Chaplin\u2019s character performs a routine task to the point where he cannot stop his motions even while away from the job. Indeed, today we even have a recognized medical condition that results from such tasks, known as \u201crepetitive stress syndrome.\u201d<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1331807\">Weber was also unlike his predecessors in that he was more interested in how individuals experienced societal divisions than in the divisions themselves. The symbolic interactionism theory, the third of the three most recognized theories of sociology, is based on Weber\u2019s early ideas that emphasize the viewpoint of the individual and how that individual relates to society. For Weber, the culmination of industrialization, rationalization, and the like results in what he referred to as the <span id=\"import-auto-id2678857\" data-type=\"term\">iron cage<\/span>, in which the individual is trapped by institutions and bureaucracy. This leads to a sense of \u201cdisenchantment of the world,\u201d a phrase Weber used to describe the final condition of humanity. Indeed a dark prediction, but one that has, at least to some degree, been borne out (Gerth and Mills 1918). In a rationalized, modern society, we have supermarkets instead of family-owned stores. We have chain restaurants instead of local eateries. Superstores that offer a multitude of merchandise have replaced independent businesses that focused on one product line, such as hardware, groceries, automotive repair, or clothing. Shopping malls offer retail stores, restaurants, fitness centers, even condominiums. This change may be rational, but is it universally desirable?<\/p>\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id1220954\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A long line of cubicles is shown.\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A long line of cubicles is shown.\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 285px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/Figure_04_02_06a.jpg\" alt=\"A long line of cubicles is shown.\" width=\"275\" height=\"439\" data-media-type=\"image\/png\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cubicles are used to maximize individual workspace in an office. Such structures may be rational, but they are also isolating. (Photo courtesy of Tim Patterson\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/section>\n<div id=\"fs-id1295165\" class=\"note sociology-big-picture\" data-type=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" data-label=\"\">\n<div class=\"title textbox shaded\" data-type=\"title\"><strong><strong>The Protestant Work Ethic<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1487080\">In a series of essays in 1904, Max Weber presented the idea of the <em data-effect=\"italics\">Protestant work ethic<\/em>, a new attitude toward work based on the Calvinist principle of predestination. In the sixteenth century, Europe was shaken by the Protestant Revolution. Religious leaders such as Martin Luther and John Calvin argued against the Catholic Church\u2019s belief in salvation through obedience. While Catholic leaders emphasized the importance of religious dogma and performing good deeds as a gateway to Heaven, Protestants believed that inner grace, or faith in God, was enough to achieve salvation.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1471597\">John Calvin in particular popularized the Christian concept of predestination, the idea that all events\u2014including salvation\u2014have already been decided by God. Because followers were never sure whether they had been chosen to enter Heaven or Hell, they looked for signs in their everyday lives. If a person was hard-working and successful, he was likely to be one of the chosen. If a person was lazy or simply indifferent, he was likely to be one of the damned.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2870399\">Weber argued that this mentality encouraged people to work hard for personal gain; after all, why should one help the unfortunate if they were already damned? Over time, the Protestant work ethic spread and became the foundation for capitalism.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"summary\" class=\"section-summary\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"section-summary\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Summary<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2103149\">\u00c9mile Durkheim believed that as societies advance, they make the transition from mechanical to organic solidarity. For Karl Marx, society exists in terms of class conflict. With the rise of capitalism, workers become alienated from themselves and others in society. Sociologist Max Weber noted that the rationalization of society can be taken to unhealthy extremes.<\/p>\n<p><iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/assessments\/load?src_url=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api\/assessments\/321.xml&#38;results_end_point=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api&#38;assessment_id=321&#38;confidence_levels=true&#38;enable_start=true&#38;eid=https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/chapter\/theoretical-perspectives-on-society\/\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"shortanswer\" class=\"short-answer\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Short Answer<\/h2>\n<div id=\"sh_exercise01\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\n<div id=\"sh_04_02_01\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1311865\">Choose two of the three sociologists discussed here (Durkheim, Marx, Weber), and use their arguments to explain a current social event such as the Occupy movement. Do their theories hold up under modern scrutiny?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"sh_exercise02\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\n<div id=\"sh_04_02_02\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1825112\">Think of the ways workers are alienated from the product and process of their jobs. How can these concepts be applied to students and their educations?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fresearch\" class=\"further-research\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"further-research\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\"><\/h1>\n<h2 data-type=\"glossary-title\">Glossary<\/h2>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2726501\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>alienation<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"glo_04_02_01\">an individual\u2019s isolation from his society, his work, and his sense of self<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2886669\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>anomie<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"glo_04_02_02\">a situation in which society no longer has the support of a firm collective consciousness<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2105449\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>bourgeoisie<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"glo_04_02_03\">the owners of the means of production in a society<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-id1170519638378\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>capitalism<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1170522759741\">a way of organizing an economy so that the things that are used to make and transport products (such as land, oil, factories, ships, etc.) are owned by individual people and companies rather than by the government<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1947673\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>class consciousness<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"glo_04_02_04\">the awareness of one\u2019s rank in society<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2367788\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>collective conscience<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"glo_04_02_05\">the communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2865331\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>false consciousness<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"glo_04_02_06\">a person\u2019s beliefs and ideology that are in conflict with her best interests<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1374789\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>iron cage<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"glo_04_02_07\">a situation in which an individual is trapped by social institutions<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2868304\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>mechanical solidarity<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"glo_04_02_08\">a type of social order maintained by the collective consciousness of a culture<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id851208\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>organic solidarity<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"glo_04_02_09\">a type of social order based around an acceptance of economic and social differences<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1318198\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>proletariat<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"glo_04_02_10\">the laborers in a society<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1353404\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>rationalization<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"glo_04_02_11\">a belief that modern society should be built around logic and efficiency rather than morality or tradition<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2094846\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>social integration<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"glo_04_02_12\">how strongly a person is connected to his or her social group<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<h1 data-type=\"title\"><\/h1>\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Further Research<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2678828\">One of the most influential pieces of writing in modern history was Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels\u2019 <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Communist Manifesto<\/em>. Visit this site to read the original document that spurred revolutions around the world: <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/Communist-Party\">http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/Communist-Party<\/a><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"references\" class=\"references\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"references\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">References<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1819972\">Durkheim, \u00c9mile. 1960 [1893]. <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Division of Labor in Society<\/em>. Translated by George Simpson. New York: Free Press.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1310487\">Durkheim, \u00c9mile. 1982 [1895]. <em data-effect=\"italics\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">The Rules of the Sociological Method<\/em><\/em>. Translated by W. D. Halls. New York: Free Press.<\/p>\n<p id=\"eip-646\">Engels, Friedrich. 1892. <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Condition of the Working-Class in England in 1844<\/em><em data-effect=\"italics\">. <\/em>London: Swan Sonnenschein &amp; Co.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1348459\">Geographia. 1998. \u201cThe Bedouin Way.\u201d Geograpia.com. Retrieved January 4, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.geographia.com\/egypt\/sinai\/bedouin02.htm\">http:\/\/www.geographia.com\/egypt\/sinai\/bedouin02.htm<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1364865\">Gerth, H. H., and C. Wright Mills. 1946. <em data-effect=\"italics\">From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology<\/em>. New York: Oxford University Press.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2101337\">Marx, Karl and Friedrich Engels. 1998 [1848]. <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Communist Manifesto<\/em>. New York: Penguin Group.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<div data-type=\"glossary\"><\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-83\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Introduction to Sociology 2e. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax CNX. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d\/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d\/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":9,"menu_order":10,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Introduction to Sociology 2e\",\"author\":\"OpenStax CNX\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d\/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-83","chapter","type-chapter","status-web-only","hentry"],"part":371,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/83","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/9"}],"version-history":[{"count":9,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/83\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1116,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/83\/revisions\/1116"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/371"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/83\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=83"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=83"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=83"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=83"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}