{"id":91,"date":"2015-05-23T03:33:21","date_gmt":"2015-05-23T03:33:21","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/masterysoc1x6xmaster\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=91"},"modified":"2015-06-19T18:09:04","modified_gmt":"2015-06-19T18:09:04","slug":"theories-of-self-development","status":"web-only","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/chapter\/theories-of-self-development\/","title":{"raw":"Reading: Theories of Self-Development","rendered":"Reading: Theories of Self-Development"},"content":{"raw":"&nbsp;\r\n<div data-type=\"abstract\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Understand the difference between psychological and sociological theories of self-development<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Explain the process of moral development<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1672555\">When we are born, we have a genetic makeup and biological traits. However, who we are as human beings develops through social interaction. Many scholars, both in the fields of psychology and in sociology, have described the process of self-development as a precursor to understanding how that \u201cself\u201d becomes socialized.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1038645\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Psychological Perspectives on Self-Development<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1674345\">Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856\u20131939) was one of the most influential modern scientists to put forth a theory about how people develop a sense of self. He believed that personality and sexual development were closely linked, and he divided the maturation process into psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. He posited that people\u2019s self-development is closely linked to early stages of development, like breastfeeding, toilet training, and sexual awareness (Freud 1905).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1382898\">According to Freud, failure to properly engage in or disengage from a specific stage results in emotional and psychological consequences throughout adulthood. An adult with an oral fixation may indulge in overeating or binge drinking. An anal fixation may produce a neat freak (hence the term \u201canal retentive\u201d), while a person stuck in the phallic stage may be promiscuous or emotionally immature. Although no solid empirical evidence supports Freud\u2019s theory, his ideas continue to contribute to the work of scholars in a variety of disciplines.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1169034185993\" class=\"note sociological-research\" data-type=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" data-label=\"\">\r\n<div class=\"title textbox shaded\" data-type=\"title\"><strong><strong>Sociology or Psychology: What\u2019s the Difference?<\/strong><\/strong>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1369857\">You might be wondering: if sociologists and psychologists are both interested in people and their behavior, how are these two disciplines different? What do they agree on, and where do their ideas diverge? The answers are complicated, but the distinction is important to scholars in both fields.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1318809\">As a general difference, we might say that while both disciplines are interested in human behavior, psychologists are focused on how the mind influences that behavior, while sociologists study the role of society in shaping behavior. Psychologists are interested in people\u2019s mental development and how their minds process their world. Sociologists are more likely to focus on how different aspects of society contribute to an individual\u2019s relationship with his world. Another way to think of the difference is that psychologists tend to look inward (mental health, emotional processes), while sociologists tend to look outward (social institutions, cultural norms, interactions with others) to understand human behavior.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2747592\">\u00c9mile Durkheim (1958\u20131917) was the first to make this distinction in research, when he attributed differences in suicide rates among people to social causes (religious differences) rather than to psychological causes (like their mental wellbeing) (Durkheim 1897). Today, we see this same distinction. For example, a sociologist studying how a couple gets to the point of their first kiss on a date might focus her research on cultural norms for dating, social patterns of sexual activity over time, or how this process is different for seniors than for teens. A psychologist would more likely be interested in the person\u2019s earliest sexual awareness or the mental processing of sexual desire.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1367750\">Sometimes sociologists and psychologists have collaborated to increase knowledge. In recent decades, however, their fields have become more clearly separated as sociologists increasingly focus on large societal issues and patterns, while psychologists remain honed in on the human mind. Both disciplines make valuable contributions through different approaches that provide us with different types of useful insights.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id3649771\">Psychologist Erik Erikson (1902\u20131994) created a theory of personality development based, in part, on the work of Freud. However, Erikson believed the personality continued to change over time and was never truly finished. His theory includes eight stages of development, beginning with birth and ending with death. According to Erikson, people move through these stages throughout their lives. In contrast to Freud\u2019s focus on psychosexual stages and basic human urges, Erikson\u2019s view of self-development gave credit to more social aspects, like the way we negotiate between our own base desires and what is socially accepted (Erikson 1982).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2302703\">Jean Piaget (1896\u20131980) was a psychologist who specialized in child development who focused specifically on the role of social interactions in their development. He recognized that the development of self evolved through a negotiation between the world as it exists in one\u2019s mind and the world that exists as it is experienced socially (Piaget 1954). All three of these thinkers have contributed to our modern understanding of self-development.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id2799992\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Sociological Theories of Self-Development<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2740138\">One of the pioneering contributors to sociological perspectives was Charles Cooley (1864\u20131929). He asserted that people\u2019s self understanding is constructed, in part, by their perception of how others view them\u2014a process termed \u201cthe looking glass self\u201d (Cooley 1902).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2873102\">Later, George Herbert Mead (1863\u20131931) studied the <span data-type=\"term\">self<\/span>, a person\u2019s distinct identity that is developed through social interaction. In order to engage in this process of \u201cself,\u201d an individual has to be able to view him or herself through the eyes of others. That\u2019s not an ability that we are born with (Mead 1934). Through socialization we learn to put ourselves in someone else's shoes and look at the world through their perspective. This assists us in becoming self-aware, as we look at ourselves from the perspective of the \"other.\" The case of Danielle, for example, illustrates what happens when social interaction is absent from early experience: Danielle had no ability to see herself as others would see her. From Mead\u2019s point of view, she had no \u201cself.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2039499\">How do we go from being newborns to being humans with \u201cselves?\u201d Mead believed that there is a specific path of development that all people go through. During the preparatory stage, children are only capable of imitation: they have no ability to imagine how others see things. They copy the actions of people with whom they regularly interact, such as their mothers and fathers. This is followed by the play stage, during which children begin to take on the role that one other person might have. Thus, children might try on a parent\u2019s point of view by acting out \u201cgrownup\u201d behavior, like playing \u201cdress up\u201d and acting out the \u201cmom\u201d role, or talking on a toy telephone the way they see their father do.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1255141\">During the game stage, children learn to consider several roles at the same time and how those roles interact with each other. They learn to understand interactions involving different people with a variety of purposes. For example, a child at this stage is likely to be aware of the different responsibilities of people in a restaurant who together make for a smooth dining experience (someone seats you, another takes your order, someone else cooks the food, while yet another clears away dirty dishes).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1416487\">Finally, children develop, understand, and learn the idea of the <span data-type=\"term\">generalized other<\/span>, the common behavioral expectations of general society. By this stage of development, an individual is able to imagine how he or she is viewed by one or many others\u2014and thus, from a sociological perspective, to have a \u201cself\u201d (Mead 1934; Mead 1964).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id780317\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Kohlberg\u2019s Theory of Moral Development<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2855950\"><span data-type=\"term\">Moral development<\/span> is an important part of the socialization process. The term refers to the way people learn what society considered to be \u201cgood\u201d and \u201cbad,\u201d which is important for a smoothly functioning society. Moral development prevents people from acting on unchecked urges, instead considering what is right for society and good for others. Lawrence Kohlberg (1927\u20131987) was interested in how people learn to decide what is right and what is wrong. To understand this topic, he developed a theory of moral development that includes three levels: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1754655\">In the preconventional stage, young children, who lack a higher level of cognitive ability, experience the world around them only through their senses. It isn\u2019t until the teen years that the conventional theory develops, when youngsters become increasingly aware of others\u2019 feelings and take those into consideration when determining what\u2019s \u201cgood\u201d and \u201cbad.\u201d The final stage, called postconventional, is when people begin to think of morality in abstract terms, such as Americans believing that everyone has the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. At this stage, people also recognize that legality and morality do not always match up evenly (Kohlberg 1981). When hundreds of thousands of Egyptians turned out in 2011 to protest government corruption, they were using postconventional morality. They understood that although their government was legal, it was not morally correct.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id2332068\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Gilligan\u2019s Theory of Moral Development and Gender<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1833033\">Another sociologist, Carol Gilligan (1936\u2013), recognized that Kohlberg\u2019s theory might show gender bias since his research was only conducted on male subjects. Would females study subjects have responded differently? Would a female social scientist notice different patterns when analyzing the research? To answer the first question, she set out to study differences between how boys and girls developed morality. Gilligan\u2019s research demonstrated that boys and girls do, in fact, have different understandings of morality. Boys tend to have a justice perspective, by placing emphasis on rules and laws. Girls, on the other hand, have a care and responsibility perspective; they consider people\u2019s reasons behind behavior that seems morally wrong.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1343310\">Gilligan also recognized that Kohlberg\u2019s theory rested on the assumption that the justice perspective was the right, or better, perspective. Gilligan, in contrast, theorized that neither perspective was \u201cbetter\u201d: the two norms of justice served different purposes. Ultimately, she explained that boys are socialized for a work environment where rules make operations run smoothly, while girls are socialized for a home environment where flexibility allows for harmony in caretaking and nurturing (Gilligan 1982; Gilligan 1990).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-id2287058\" class=\"note sociology-real-world\" data-type=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" data-label=\"\">\r\n<div class=\"title textbox shaded\" data-type=\"title\"><strong><strong>What a Pretty Little Lady!<\/strong><\/strong>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2184924\">\u201cWhat a cute dress!\u201d \u201cI like the ribbons in your hair.\u201d \u201cWow, you look so pretty today.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1672328\">According to Lisa Bloom, author of <em data-effect=\"italics\">Think: Straight Talk for Women to Stay Smart in a Dumbed Down World<\/em>, most of us use pleasantries like these when we first meet little girls. \u201cSo what?\u201d you might ask.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1666170\">Bloom asserts that we are too focused on the appearance of young girls, and as a result, our society is socializing them to believe that how they look is of vital importance. And Bloom may be on to something. How often do you tell a little boy how attractive his outfit is, how nice looking his shoes are, or how handsome he looks today? To support her assertions, Bloom cites, as one example, that about 50 percent of girls ages three to six worry about being fat (Bloom 2011). We\u2019re talking about kindergarteners who are concerned about their body image. Sociologists are acutely interested in of this type of gender socialization, by which societal expectations of how boys and girls should <em data-effect=\"italics\">be<\/em>\u2014how they should behave, what toys and colors they should like, and how important their attire is\u2014are reinforced.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1490859\">One solution to this type of gender socialization is being experimented with at the Egalia preschool in Sweden, where children develop in a genderless environment. All the children at Egalia are referred to with neutral terms like \u201cfriend\u201d instead of \u201che\u201d or \u201cshe.\u201d Play areas and toys are consciously set up to eliminate any reinforcement of gender expectations (Haney 2011). Egalia strives to eliminate all societal gender norms from these children\u2019s preschool world.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id3608688\">Extreme? Perhaps. So what is the middle ground? Bloom suggests that we start with simple steps: when introduced to a young girl, ask about her favorite book or what she likes. In short, engage with her mind \u2026 not her outward appearance (Bloom 2011).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-id1490322\" class=\"section-summary\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"section-summary\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Summary<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1341561\">Psychological theories of self-development have been broadened by sociologists who explicitly study the role of society and social interaction in self-development. Charles Cooley and George Mead both contributed significantly to the sociological understanding of the development of self. Lawrence Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan developed their ideas further and researched how our sense of morality develops. Gilligan added the dimension of gender differences to Kohlberg\u2019s theory.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.openassessments.com\/assessments\/323\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1562112\" class=\"short-answer\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\"><\/h1>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Short Answer<\/h2>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id2880462\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-id811200\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2316644\">Think of a current issue or pattern that a sociologist might study. What types of questions would the sociologist ask, and what research methods might he employ? Now consider the questions and methods a psychologist might use to study the same issue. Comment on their different approaches.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1327441\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-id2909976\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1509375\">Explain why it\u2019s important to conduct research using both male and female participants. What sociological topics might show gender differences? Provide some examples to illustrate your ideas.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1390745\" class=\"further-research\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"further-research\">\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\"><\/h1>\r\n<div data-type=\"glossary\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"glossary-title\">Glossary<\/h2>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-id1587189\" class=\"definition\"><dt>generalized other<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id1365511\">the common behavioral expectations of general society<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"fs-id1195694\" class=\"definition\"><dt>moral development<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id1642021\">the way people learn what is \u201cgood\u201d and \u201cbad\u201d in society<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"fs-id2797857\" class=\"definition\"><dt>self<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id786940\">a person\u2019s distinct sense of identity as developed through social interaction<\/dd><\/dl><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\"><\/h1>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Further Research<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id920115\">Lawrence Kohlberg was most famous for his research using moral dilemmas. He presented dilemmas to boys and asked them how they would judge the situations. Visit <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/Dilemma\">http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/Dilemma<\/a> to read about Kohlberg\u2019s most famous moral dilemma, known as the Heinz dilemma.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id3061198\" class=\"references\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"references\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">References<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id3272612\">Cooley, Charles Horton. 1902. \u201cThe Looking Glass Self.\u201d Pp. 179\u2013185 in <em data-effect=\"italics\">Human Nature and Social Order<\/em>. New York: Scribner\u2019s.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1496642\">Bloom, Lisa. 2011. \u201cHow to Talk to Little Girls.\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">Huffington Post<\/em>, June 22. Retrieved January 12, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.huffingtonpost.com\/lisa-bloom\/how-to-talk-to-little-gir_b_882510.html\">http:\/\/www.huffingtonpost.com\/lisa-bloom\/how-to-talk-to-little-gir_b_882510.html<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1378185\">Erikson, Erik. 1982. <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Lifecycle Completed: A Review<\/em>. New York: Norton.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1537271\">Durkheim, \u00c9mile. 2011 [1897]. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Suicide<\/em>. London: Routledge.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1774677\">Freud, Sigmund. 2000 [1904]. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Three Essays on Theories of Sexuality<\/em>. New York: Basic Books.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1783848\">Gilligan, Carol. 1982. <em data-effect=\"italics\">In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women\u2019s Development<\/em>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id2042311\">Gilligan, Carol. 1990. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Making Connections: The Relational Worlds of Adolescent Girls at Emma Willard School<\/em>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1425188\">Haney, Phil. 2011. \u201cGenderless Preschool in Sweden.\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">Baby &amp; Kids<\/em>, June 28. Retrieved January 12, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.neatorama.com\/2011\/06\/28\/genderless-preschool-in-sweden\/\">http:\/\/www.neatorama.com\/2011\/06\/28\/genderless-preschool-in-sweden\/<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id2173276\">Harlow, Harry F. 1971. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Learning to Love<\/em>. New York: Ballantine.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id2060641\">Harlow, Harry F., and Margaret Kuenne Harlow. 1962. \u201cSocial Deprivation in Monkeys.\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">Scientific American<\/em> November:137\u201346.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1806249\">Kohlberg, Lawrence. 1981. <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Psychology of Moral Development: The Nature and Validity of Moral Stages<\/em>. New York: Harper and Row.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1338435\">Mead, George H. 1934. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Mind, Self and Society<\/em>, edited by C. W. Morris. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1496743\">Mead, George H. 1964. <em data-effect=\"italics\">On Social Psychology<\/em>, edited by A. Strauss. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1524918\">Piaget, Jean. 1954. <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Construction of Reality in the Child<\/em>. New York: Basic Books.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div data-type=\"glossary\"><\/div>","rendered":"<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"abstract\">\n<ul>\n<li>Understand the difference between psychological and sociological theories of self-development<\/li>\n<li>Explain the process of moral development<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1672555\">When we are born, we have a genetic makeup and biological traits. However, who we are as human beings develops through social interaction. Many scholars, both in the fields of psychology and in sociology, have described the process of self-development as a precursor to understanding how that \u201cself\u201d becomes socialized.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1038645\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Psychological Perspectives on Self-Development<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1674345\">Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856\u20131939) was one of the most influential modern scientists to put forth a theory about how people develop a sense of self. He believed that personality and sexual development were closely linked, and he divided the maturation process into psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. He posited that people\u2019s self-development is closely linked to early stages of development, like breastfeeding, toilet training, and sexual awareness (Freud 1905).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1382898\">According to Freud, failure to properly engage in or disengage from a specific stage results in emotional and psychological consequences throughout adulthood. An adult with an oral fixation may indulge in overeating or binge drinking. An anal fixation may produce a neat freak (hence the term \u201canal retentive\u201d), while a person stuck in the phallic stage may be promiscuous or emotionally immature. Although no solid empirical evidence supports Freud\u2019s theory, his ideas continue to contribute to the work of scholars in a variety of disciplines.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-id1169034185993\" class=\"note sociological-research\" data-type=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" data-label=\"\">\n<div class=\"title textbox shaded\" data-type=\"title\"><strong><strong>Sociology or Psychology: What\u2019s the Difference?<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1369857\">You might be wondering: if sociologists and psychologists are both interested in people and their behavior, how are these two disciplines different? What do they agree on, and where do their ideas diverge? The answers are complicated, but the distinction is important to scholars in both fields.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1318809\">As a general difference, we might say that while both disciplines are interested in human behavior, psychologists are focused on how the mind influences that behavior, while sociologists study the role of society in shaping behavior. Psychologists are interested in people\u2019s mental development and how their minds process their world. Sociologists are more likely to focus on how different aspects of society contribute to an individual\u2019s relationship with his world. Another way to think of the difference is that psychologists tend to look inward (mental health, emotional processes), while sociologists tend to look outward (social institutions, cultural norms, interactions with others) to understand human behavior.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2747592\">\u00c9mile Durkheim (1958\u20131917) was the first to make this distinction in research, when he attributed differences in suicide rates among people to social causes (religious differences) rather than to psychological causes (like their mental wellbeing) (Durkheim 1897). Today, we see this same distinction. For example, a sociologist studying how a couple gets to the point of their first kiss on a date might focus her research on cultural norms for dating, social patterns of sexual activity over time, or how this process is different for seniors than for teens. A psychologist would more likely be interested in the person\u2019s earliest sexual awareness or the mental processing of sexual desire.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1367750\">Sometimes sociologists and psychologists have collaborated to increase knowledge. In recent decades, however, their fields have become more clearly separated as sociologists increasingly focus on large societal issues and patterns, while psychologists remain honed in on the human mind. Both disciplines make valuable contributions through different approaches that provide us with different types of useful insights.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id3649771\">Psychologist Erik Erikson (1902\u20131994) created a theory of personality development based, in part, on the work of Freud. However, Erikson believed the personality continued to change over time and was never truly finished. His theory includes eight stages of development, beginning with birth and ending with death. According to Erikson, people move through these stages throughout their lives. In contrast to Freud\u2019s focus on psychosexual stages and basic human urges, Erikson\u2019s view of self-development gave credit to more social aspects, like the way we negotiate between our own base desires and what is socially accepted (Erikson 1982).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2302703\">Jean Piaget (1896\u20131980) was a psychologist who specialized in child development who focused specifically on the role of social interactions in their development. He recognized that the development of self evolved through a negotiation between the world as it exists in one\u2019s mind and the world that exists as it is experienced socially (Piaget 1954). All three of these thinkers have contributed to our modern understanding of self-development.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id2799992\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Sociological Theories of Self-Development<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2740138\">One of the pioneering contributors to sociological perspectives was Charles Cooley (1864\u20131929). He asserted that people\u2019s self understanding is constructed, in part, by their perception of how others view them\u2014a process termed \u201cthe looking glass self\u201d (Cooley 1902).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2873102\">Later, George Herbert Mead (1863\u20131931) studied the <span data-type=\"term\">self<\/span>, a person\u2019s distinct identity that is developed through social interaction. In order to engage in this process of \u201cself,\u201d an individual has to be able to view him or herself through the eyes of others. That\u2019s not an ability that we are born with (Mead 1934). Through socialization we learn to put ourselves in someone else&#8217;s shoes and look at the world through their perspective. This assists us in becoming self-aware, as we look at ourselves from the perspective of the &#8220;other.&#8221; The case of Danielle, for example, illustrates what happens when social interaction is absent from early experience: Danielle had no ability to see herself as others would see her. From Mead\u2019s point of view, she had no \u201cself.\u201d<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2039499\">How do we go from being newborns to being humans with \u201cselves?\u201d Mead believed that there is a specific path of development that all people go through. During the preparatory stage, children are only capable of imitation: they have no ability to imagine how others see things. They copy the actions of people with whom they regularly interact, such as their mothers and fathers. This is followed by the play stage, during which children begin to take on the role that one other person might have. Thus, children might try on a parent\u2019s point of view by acting out \u201cgrownup\u201d behavior, like playing \u201cdress up\u201d and acting out the \u201cmom\u201d role, or talking on a toy telephone the way they see their father do.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1255141\">During the game stage, children learn to consider several roles at the same time and how those roles interact with each other. They learn to understand interactions involving different people with a variety of purposes. For example, a child at this stage is likely to be aware of the different responsibilities of people in a restaurant who together make for a smooth dining experience (someone seats you, another takes your order, someone else cooks the food, while yet another clears away dirty dishes).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1416487\">Finally, children develop, understand, and learn the idea of the <span data-type=\"term\">generalized other<\/span>, the common behavioral expectations of general society. By this stage of development, an individual is able to imagine how he or she is viewed by one or many others\u2014and thus, from a sociological perspective, to have a \u201cself\u201d (Mead 1934; Mead 1964).<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id780317\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Kohlberg\u2019s Theory of Moral Development<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2855950\"><span data-type=\"term\">Moral development<\/span> is an important part of the socialization process. The term refers to the way people learn what society considered to be \u201cgood\u201d and \u201cbad,\u201d which is important for a smoothly functioning society. Moral development prevents people from acting on unchecked urges, instead considering what is right for society and good for others. Lawrence Kohlberg (1927\u20131987) was interested in how people learn to decide what is right and what is wrong. To understand this topic, he developed a theory of moral development that includes three levels: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1754655\">In the preconventional stage, young children, who lack a higher level of cognitive ability, experience the world around them only through their senses. It isn\u2019t until the teen years that the conventional theory develops, when youngsters become increasingly aware of others\u2019 feelings and take those into consideration when determining what\u2019s \u201cgood\u201d and \u201cbad.\u201d The final stage, called postconventional, is when people begin to think of morality in abstract terms, such as Americans believing that everyone has the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. At this stage, people also recognize that legality and morality do not always match up evenly (Kohlberg 1981). When hundreds of thousands of Egyptians turned out in 2011 to protest government corruption, they were using postconventional morality. They understood that although their government was legal, it was not morally correct.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id2332068\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Gilligan\u2019s Theory of Moral Development and Gender<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1833033\">Another sociologist, Carol Gilligan (1936\u2013), recognized that Kohlberg\u2019s theory might show gender bias since his research was only conducted on male subjects. Would females study subjects have responded differently? Would a female social scientist notice different patterns when analyzing the research? To answer the first question, she set out to study differences between how boys and girls developed morality. Gilligan\u2019s research demonstrated that boys and girls do, in fact, have different understandings of morality. Boys tend to have a justice perspective, by placing emphasis on rules and laws. Girls, on the other hand, have a care and responsibility perspective; they consider people\u2019s reasons behind behavior that seems morally wrong.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1343310\">Gilligan also recognized that Kohlberg\u2019s theory rested on the assumption that the justice perspective was the right, or better, perspective. Gilligan, in contrast, theorized that neither perspective was \u201cbetter\u201d: the two norms of justice served different purposes. Ultimately, she explained that boys are socialized for a work environment where rules make operations run smoothly, while girls are socialized for a home environment where flexibility allows for harmony in caretaking and nurturing (Gilligan 1982; Gilligan 1990).<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-id2287058\" class=\"note sociology-real-world\" data-type=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" data-label=\"\">\n<div class=\"title textbox shaded\" data-type=\"title\"><strong><strong>What a Pretty Little Lady!<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2184924\">\u201cWhat a cute dress!\u201d \u201cI like the ribbons in your hair.\u201d \u201cWow, you look so pretty today.\u201d<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1672328\">According to Lisa Bloom, author of <em data-effect=\"italics\">Think: Straight Talk for Women to Stay Smart in a Dumbed Down World<\/em>, most of us use pleasantries like these when we first meet little girls. \u201cSo what?\u201d you might ask.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1666170\">Bloom asserts that we are too focused on the appearance of young girls, and as a result, our society is socializing them to believe that how they look is of vital importance. And Bloom may be on to something. How often do you tell a little boy how attractive his outfit is, how nice looking his shoes are, or how handsome he looks today? To support her assertions, Bloom cites, as one example, that about 50 percent of girls ages three to six worry about being fat (Bloom 2011). We\u2019re talking about kindergarteners who are concerned about their body image. Sociologists are acutely interested in of this type of gender socialization, by which societal expectations of how boys and girls should <em data-effect=\"italics\">be<\/em>\u2014how they should behave, what toys and colors they should like, and how important their attire is\u2014are reinforced.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1490859\">One solution to this type of gender socialization is being experimented with at the Egalia preschool in Sweden, where children develop in a genderless environment. All the children at Egalia are referred to with neutral terms like \u201cfriend\u201d instead of \u201che\u201d or \u201cshe.\u201d Play areas and toys are consciously set up to eliminate any reinforcement of gender expectations (Haney 2011). Egalia strives to eliminate all societal gender norms from these children\u2019s preschool world.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id3608688\">Extreme? Perhaps. So what is the middle ground? Bloom suggests that we start with simple steps: when introduced to a young girl, ask about her favorite book or what she likes. In short, engage with her mind \u2026 not her outward appearance (Bloom 2011).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1490322\" class=\"section-summary\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"section-summary\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Summary<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1341561\">Psychological theories of self-development have been broadened by sociologists who explicitly study the role of society and social interaction in self-development. Charles Cooley and George Mead both contributed significantly to the sociological understanding of the development of self. Lawrence Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan developed their ideas further and researched how our sense of morality develops. Gilligan added the dimension of gender differences to Kohlberg\u2019s theory.<\/p>\n<p><iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/assessments\/load?src_url=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api\/assessments\/323.xml&#38;results_end_point=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api&#38;assessment_id=323&#38;confidence_levels=true&#38;enable_start=true&#38;eid=https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/chapter\/theories-of-self-development\/\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1562112\" class=\"short-answer\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\"><\/h1>\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Short Answer<\/h2>\n<div id=\"fs-id2880462\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\n<div id=\"fs-id811200\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2316644\">Think of a current issue or pattern that a sociologist might study. What types of questions would the sociologist ask, and what research methods might he employ? Now consider the questions and methods a psychologist might use to study the same issue. Comment on their different approaches.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-id1327441\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\n<div id=\"fs-id2909976\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1509375\">Explain why it\u2019s important to conduct research using both male and female participants. What sociological topics might show gender differences? Provide some examples to illustrate your ideas.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1390745\" class=\"further-research\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"further-research\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\"><\/h1>\n<div data-type=\"glossary\">\n<h2 data-type=\"glossary-title\">Glossary<\/h2>\n<dl id=\"fs-id1587189\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>generalized other<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1365511\">the common behavioral expectations of general society<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-id1195694\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>moral development<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1642021\">the way people learn what is \u201cgood\u201d and \u201cbad\u201d in society<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-id2797857\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>self<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id786940\">a person\u2019s distinct sense of identity as developed through social interaction<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1 data-type=\"title\"><\/h1>\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Further Research<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id920115\">Lawrence Kohlberg was most famous for his research using moral dilemmas. He presented dilemmas to boys and asked them how they would judge the situations. Visit <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/Dilemma\">http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/Dilemma<\/a> to read about Kohlberg\u2019s most famous moral dilemma, known as the Heinz dilemma.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id3061198\" class=\"references\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"references\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">References<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-id3272612\">Cooley, Charles Horton. 1902. \u201cThe Looking Glass Self.\u201d Pp. 179\u2013185 in <em data-effect=\"italics\">Human Nature and Social Order<\/em>. New York: Scribner\u2019s.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1496642\">Bloom, Lisa. 2011. \u201cHow to Talk to Little Girls.\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">Huffington Post<\/em>, June 22. Retrieved January 12, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.huffingtonpost.com\/lisa-bloom\/how-to-talk-to-little-gir_b_882510.html\">http:\/\/www.huffingtonpost.com\/lisa-bloom\/how-to-talk-to-little-gir_b_882510.html<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1378185\">Erikson, Erik. 1982. <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Lifecycle Completed: A Review<\/em>. New York: Norton.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1537271\">Durkheim, \u00c9mile. 2011 [1897]. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Suicide<\/em>. London: Routledge.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1774677\">Freud, Sigmund. 2000 [1904]. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Three Essays on Theories of Sexuality<\/em>. New York: Basic Books.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1783848\">Gilligan, Carol. 1982. <em data-effect=\"italics\">In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women\u2019s Development<\/em>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id2042311\">Gilligan, Carol. 1990. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Making Connections: The Relational Worlds of Adolescent Girls at Emma Willard School<\/em>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1425188\">Haney, Phil. 2011. \u201cGenderless Preschool in Sweden.\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">Baby &amp; Kids<\/em>, June 28. Retrieved January 12, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.neatorama.com\/2011\/06\/28\/genderless-preschool-in-sweden\/\">http:\/\/www.neatorama.com\/2011\/06\/28\/genderless-preschool-in-sweden\/<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id2173276\">Harlow, Harry F. 1971. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Learning to Love<\/em>. New York: Ballantine.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id2060641\">Harlow, Harry F., and Margaret Kuenne Harlow. 1962. \u201cSocial Deprivation in Monkeys.\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">Scientific American<\/em> November:137\u201346.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1806249\">Kohlberg, Lawrence. 1981. <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Psychology of Moral Development: The Nature and Validity of Moral Stages<\/em>. New York: Harper and Row.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1338435\">Mead, George H. 1934. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Mind, Self and Society<\/em>, edited by C. W. Morris. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1496743\">Mead, George H. 1964. <em data-effect=\"italics\">On Social Psychology<\/em>, edited by A. Strauss. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1524918\">Piaget, Jean. 1954. <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Construction of Reality in the Child<\/em>. New York: Basic Books.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<div data-type=\"glossary\"><\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-91\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Introduction to Sociology 2e. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax CNX. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d\/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d\/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":9,"menu_order":14,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Introduction to Sociology 2e\",\"author\":\"OpenStax CNX\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d\/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-91","chapter","type-chapter","status-web-only","hentry"],"part":371,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/91","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/9"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/91\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1125,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/91\/revisions\/1125"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/371"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/91\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=91"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=91"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=91"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=91"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}