{"id":1745,"date":"2020-09-10T03:02:21","date_gmt":"2020-09-10T03:02:21","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/abnormalpsych\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=1745"},"modified":"2023-05-10T16:18:56","modified_gmt":"2023-05-10T16:18:56","slug":"perspectives-on-personality-disorders","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-abnormalpsych\/chapter\/perspectives-on-personality-disorders\/","title":{"raw":"Perspectives on Personality Disorders","rendered":"Perspectives on Personality Disorders"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe viewpoints from the major psychological perspectives related to the etiology of personality disorders<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"h1\">A Historical Understanding of Personality Disorders<\/h2>\r\nAs you have learned in this module, the DSM-5\u00a0defines personality disorders as \u201can enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual\u2019s culture, is pervasive and inflexible, has an onset in adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and leads to distress or impairment.\u201d This definition has evolved over time.\r\n\r\nThe consideration of cultural context is perhaps the most significant change in this definition from the earlier DSM-3. Although the DSM-4-TR made a point of adding cultural context to the definition of personality disorders, it wasn't until the publication of the DSM-5 that much was said in the manual about culture. Not only is there limited research regarding the influence of culture on personality disorders, there is likewise only limited research on cultural influences on normal personality.\r\n<h2>Biological Perspectives<\/h2>\r\nCurrently, genetic research for the understanding of the development of personality disorders is severely lacking. However, there are a few possible risk factors currently in discovery. Researchers are currently looking into genetic mechanisms for traits such as aggression, fear, and anxiety, which are associated with diagnosed individuals.\u00a0More research is being conducted into disorder-specific mechanisms.\r\n\r\nThere are some genetic factors connected to biological or genetic components, but no specific mechanisms have been identified. This means that there is likely a biological predisposition for some personality disorders, but more research needs to be done to determine the precise connections.\r\n<h2>Psychodynamic Perspectives<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4437\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"wp-image-4437 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5351\/2020\/09\/17003521\/girl-3231703_1920-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"A teenage girl laying down with headphones on listening to music.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" \/> <strong>Figure 1.\u00a0<\/strong>An individual's personality can be influenced by things they went through as a child.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe psychodynamic theory on personality proposes events that happen to us in our childhood impacts our lives as we mature. Even if childhood events remain in our unconscious, significant problems may arise with our personalities in adolescence and adulthood.\u00a0Psychodynamic theory views personality as exhibited behaviors and characteristics caused by unconscious factors that we do not have control over.\r\n<h2><strong>Cognitive Perspectives<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nCognitive theorists propose a link between personality and disruptive and disordered thought patterns. Individuals with a personality disorder may develop inaccurate perceptions of others (Beck, 2015).\u00a0There may be a relationship between biological factors and adverse environmental factors. Disordered patterns of perceiving and relating to the world may develop as protective measures during childhood. These patterns of behavior may be reflected as characteristics of a personality disorder.\r\n<h2><strong>Behavioral Perspectives<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nBehavioral theorists believe people behave in a consistent manner and view personality as being shaped by reinforcements and consequences. We learn to behave in certain ways, increasing behaviors that lead to positive consequences and decreasing behaviors that lead to negative outcomes.\u00a0We have to consider modeling, reinforcement, and the inability to develop normal social skills. In modeling, an individual may learn dysfunctional social patterns and behaviors by directly observing family members engaging in similar behaviors.\u00a0With reinforcement, individuals may be rewarded by gaining their desired outcomes when they successfully manipulate others. Additionally, when there is exaggerated praise, individuals may develop a grandiose sense of self, similar to a narcissistic personality (Millon, 2011).\r\n\r\nAlthough genetic studies on personality disorders are relatively rare, many researchers agree avoiding certain social situations may contribute to the development of personality disorders. It\u2019s not clear if lacking social skills leads to the avoidance of social settings or if lacking social skills develops as a result of avoiding social situations (APA, 2013).\r\n<h2><strong>Sociocultural Perspectives<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nWe also have to consider how life experiences factor into the development of personality disorders. Trauma and abuse play key roles in possible causes of the ten personality disorders.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4439\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"wp-image-4439 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5351\/2020\/09\/17004134\/sad-219722_1280-300x199.jpg\" alt=\"A boy wearing a sad expression and cradling his face with his hands.\" width=\"300\" height=\"199\" \/> <strong>Figure 2. <\/strong>There\u00a0is a correlation between child neglect and the development of personality disorders in adulthood.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nChild abuse\u00a0and\u00a0neglect\u00a0consistently show up as risk factors to the development of personality disorders in adulthood.\u00a0A study looked at\u00a0retrospective reports of abuse of participants that had demonstrated psychopathology throughout their life and were later found to have past experience with abuse. In a study of 793 mothers and children, researchers asked mothers if they had screamed at their children, told them that they did not love them, or threatened to send them away.\u00a0Children who had experienced such verbal abuse were three times as likely as other children (who did not experience such verbal abuse) to have borderline, narcissistic, obsessive-compulsive, or paranoid personality disorders in adulthood.[footnote]\"What Causes Psychological Disorders?\". <em>American Psychological Association<\/em>. 2010. Archived from the original on 20 November 2010.[\/footnote]\u00a0The\u00a0sexually abused\u00a0group demonstrated the most consistently elevated patterns of psychopathology. Officially verified\u00a0physical abuse\u00a0showed an extremely strong correlation with the development of antisocial and impulsive behavior.\r\n\r\nSocioeconomic status\u00a0has also been looked at as a potential cause for personality disorders. There is a strong association between low parental\/neighborhood socioeconomic status and personality disorder symptoms.\u00a0In a recent study comparing parental SES and a child's personality, it was seen that children who were from higher socioeconomic backgrounds were more altruistic, less risk-seeking, and had overall higher\u00a0IQs.[footnote]Deckers, Thomas (February 2015). \"How does Socio-Economic Status Shape a Child's Personality?\" (PDF). <em>Human Capital and Economic Opportunity Global Working Group<\/em>.[\/footnote] A study looking at female children who were detained for disciplinary actions found that psychological problems were most negatively associated with socioeconomic problems.\r\n<h3><span id=\"Parenting\" class=\"mw-headline\">Parenting<\/span><\/h3>\r\nEvidence shows personality disorders may begin with parental personality issues. These cause the parent to have their own difficulties in adulthood, such as difficulties reaching higher education, obtaining jobs, and securing dependable relationships. By either genetic or modeling mechanisms, children can pick up these traits.\u00a0Additionally, poor parenting appears to have symptom-elevating effects on personality disorders.\u00a0Another hypothesis is that a lack of\u00a0maternal bonding may lead to the development of personality disorders.[footnote]Schwarze, Cornelia E.; Hellhammer, Dirk H.; Stroehle, Verena; Lieb, Klaus; Mobascher, Arian (23 September 2014). \"Lack of Breastfeeding: A Potential Risk Factor in the Multifactorial Genesis of Borderline Personality Disorder and Impaired Maternal Bonding\". <em>Journal of Personality Disorders<\/em>. 29 (5): 610\u201326. doi:10.1521\/pedi_2014_28_160. ISSN 0885-579X. PMID 25248013.[\/footnote]\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Key Takeaways: The Etiology of Personality Disorders<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Biological causes of personality disorders have not been identified for most disorders. It is difficult to determine whether genetics play a significant role in the development of personality disorders to the exclusion of social and psychological factors.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Psychological causes of personality disorders include negative early childhood experiences, maladaptive thought patterns, cognitive distortions, modeling, reinforcement, and lack of social skills.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Social causes of personality disorders include high levels of psychological and social dysfunction within families and maltreatment.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/1378b5f2-2ab5-4f95-8431-46c9e7bbb82c\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe viewpoints from the major psychological perspectives related to the etiology of personality disorders<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"h1\">A Historical Understanding of Personality Disorders<\/h2>\n<p>As you have learned in this module, the DSM-5\u00a0defines personality disorders as \u201can enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual\u2019s culture, is pervasive and inflexible, has an onset in adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and leads to distress or impairment.\u201d This definition has evolved over time.<\/p>\n<p>The consideration of cultural context is perhaps the most significant change in this definition from the earlier DSM-3. Although the DSM-4-TR made a point of adding cultural context to the definition of personality disorders, it wasn&#8217;t until the publication of the DSM-5 that much was said in the manual about culture. Not only is there limited research regarding the influence of culture on personality disorders, there is likewise only limited research on cultural influences on normal personality.<\/p>\n<h2>Biological Perspectives<\/h2>\n<p>Currently, genetic research for the understanding of the development of personality disorders is severely lacking. However, there are a few possible risk factors currently in discovery. Researchers are currently looking into genetic mechanisms for traits such as aggression, fear, and anxiety, which are associated with diagnosed individuals.\u00a0More research is being conducted into disorder-specific mechanisms.<\/p>\n<p>There are some genetic factors connected to biological or genetic components, but no specific mechanisms have been identified. This means that there is likely a biological predisposition for some personality disorders, but more research needs to be done to determine the precise connections.<\/p>\n<h2>Psychodynamic Perspectives<\/h2>\n<div id=\"attachment_4437\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4437\" class=\"wp-image-4437 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5351\/2020\/09\/17003521\/girl-3231703_1920-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"A teenage girl laying down with headphones on listening to music.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4437\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1.\u00a0<\/strong>An individual&#8217;s personality can be influenced by things they went through as a child.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The psychodynamic theory on personality proposes events that happen to us in our childhood impacts our lives as we mature. Even if childhood events remain in our unconscious, significant problems may arise with our personalities in adolescence and adulthood.\u00a0Psychodynamic theory views personality as exhibited behaviors and characteristics caused by unconscious factors that we do not have control over.<\/p>\n<h2><strong>Cognitive Perspectives<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>Cognitive theorists propose a link between personality and disruptive and disordered thought patterns. Individuals with a personality disorder may develop inaccurate perceptions of others (Beck, 2015).\u00a0There may be a relationship between biological factors and adverse environmental factors. Disordered patterns of perceiving and relating to the world may develop as protective measures during childhood. These patterns of behavior may be reflected as characteristics of a personality disorder.<\/p>\n<h2><strong>Behavioral Perspectives<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>Behavioral theorists believe people behave in a consistent manner and view personality as being shaped by reinforcements and consequences. We learn to behave in certain ways, increasing behaviors that lead to positive consequences and decreasing behaviors that lead to negative outcomes.\u00a0We have to consider modeling, reinforcement, and the inability to develop normal social skills. In modeling, an individual may learn dysfunctional social patterns and behaviors by directly observing family members engaging in similar behaviors.\u00a0With reinforcement, individuals may be rewarded by gaining their desired outcomes when they successfully manipulate others. Additionally, when there is exaggerated praise, individuals may develop a grandiose sense of self, similar to a narcissistic personality (Millon, 2011).<\/p>\n<p>Although genetic studies on personality disorders are relatively rare, many researchers agree avoiding certain social situations may contribute to the development of personality disorders. It\u2019s not clear if lacking social skills leads to the avoidance of social settings or if lacking social skills develops as a result of avoiding social situations (APA, 2013).<\/p>\n<h2><strong>Sociocultural Perspectives<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>We also have to consider how life experiences factor into the development of personality disorders. Trauma and abuse play key roles in possible causes of the ten personality disorders.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_4439\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4439\" class=\"wp-image-4439 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5351\/2020\/09\/17004134\/sad-219722_1280-300x199.jpg\" alt=\"A boy wearing a sad expression and cradling his face with his hands.\" width=\"300\" height=\"199\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4439\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2. <\/strong>There\u00a0is a correlation between child neglect and the development of personality disorders in adulthood.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Child abuse\u00a0and\u00a0neglect\u00a0consistently show up as risk factors to the development of personality disorders in adulthood.\u00a0A study looked at\u00a0retrospective reports of abuse of participants that had demonstrated psychopathology throughout their life and were later found to have past experience with abuse. In a study of 793 mothers and children, researchers asked mothers if they had screamed at their children, told them that they did not love them, or threatened to send them away.\u00a0Children who had experienced such verbal abuse were three times as likely as other children (who did not experience such verbal abuse) to have borderline, narcissistic, obsessive-compulsive, or paranoid personality disorders in adulthood.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;What Causes Psychological Disorders?&quot;. American Psychological Association. 2010. Archived from the original on 20 November 2010.\" id=\"return-footnote-1745-1\" href=\"#footnote-1745-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0The\u00a0sexually abused\u00a0group demonstrated the most consistently elevated patterns of psychopathology. Officially verified\u00a0physical abuse\u00a0showed an extremely strong correlation with the development of antisocial and impulsive behavior.<\/p>\n<p>Socioeconomic status\u00a0has also been looked at as a potential cause for personality disorders. There is a strong association between low parental\/neighborhood socioeconomic status and personality disorder symptoms.\u00a0In a recent study comparing parental SES and a child&#8217;s personality, it was seen that children who were from higher socioeconomic backgrounds were more altruistic, less risk-seeking, and had overall higher\u00a0IQs.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Deckers, Thomas (February 2015). &quot;How does Socio-Economic Status Shape a Child's Personality?&quot; (PDF). Human Capital and Economic Opportunity Global Working Group.\" id=\"return-footnote-1745-2\" href=\"#footnote-1745-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a> A study looking at female children who were detained for disciplinary actions found that psychological problems were most negatively associated with socioeconomic problems.<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"Parenting\" class=\"mw-headline\">Parenting<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Evidence shows personality disorders may begin with parental personality issues. These cause the parent to have their own difficulties in adulthood, such as difficulties reaching higher education, obtaining jobs, and securing dependable relationships. By either genetic or modeling mechanisms, children can pick up these traits.\u00a0Additionally, poor parenting appears to have symptom-elevating effects on personality disorders.\u00a0Another hypothesis is that a lack of\u00a0maternal bonding may lead to the development of personality disorders.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Schwarze, Cornelia E.; Hellhammer, Dirk H.; Stroehle, Verena; Lieb, Klaus; Mobascher, Arian (23 September 2014). &quot;Lack of Breastfeeding: A Potential Risk Factor in the Multifactorial Genesis of Borderline Personality Disorder and Impaired Maternal Bonding&quot;. Journal of Personality Disorders. 29 (5): 610\u201326. doi:10.1521\/pedi_2014_28_160. ISSN 0885-579X. PMID 25248013.\" id=\"return-footnote-1745-3\" href=\"#footnote-1745-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Key Takeaways: The Etiology of Personality Disorders<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Biological causes of personality disorders have not been identified for most disorders. It is difficult to determine whether genetics play a significant role in the development of personality disorders to the exclusion of social and psychological factors.<\/li>\n<li>Psychological causes of personality disorders include negative early childhood experiences, maladaptive thought patterns, cognitive distortions, modeling, reinforcement, and lack of social skills.<\/li>\n<li>Social causes of personality disorders include high levels of psychological and social dysfunction within families and maltreatment.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_1378b5f2-2ab5-4f95-8431-46c9e7bbb82c\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/1378b5f2-2ab5-4f95-8431-46c9e7bbb82c?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_1378b5f2-2ab5-4f95-8431-46c9e7bbb82c\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-1745\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Julie Manley for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Personality Theory. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Mark Kelland. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oercommons.org\/authoring\/22859-personality-theory\/19\/view\">https:\/\/www.oercommons.org\/authoring\/22859-personality-theory\/19\/view<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Personality Disorder. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personality_disorder#Causes\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personality_disorder#Causes<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Teen girl. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Luisella Planeta Leoni. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/girl-relaxation-listening-music-3231703\/\">https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/girl-relaxation-listening-music-3231703\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Pixabay License<\/li><li>Sad boy. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: PublicDomainPictures. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/sad-child-boy-kid-crying-tears-219722\/\">https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/sad-child-boy-kid-crying-tears-219722\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Pixabay License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-1745-1\">\"What Causes Psychological Disorders?\". <em>American Psychological Association<\/em>. 2010. Archived from the original on 20 November 2010. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1745-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1745-2\">Deckers, Thomas (February 2015). \"How does Socio-Economic Status Shape a Child's Personality?\" (PDF). <em>Human Capital and Economic Opportunity Global Working Group<\/em>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1745-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1745-3\">Schwarze, Cornelia E.; Hellhammer, Dirk H.; Stroehle, Verena; Lieb, Klaus; Mobascher, Arian (23 September 2014). \"Lack of Breastfeeding: A Potential Risk Factor in the Multifactorial Genesis of Borderline Personality Disorder and Impaired Maternal Bonding\". <em>Journal of Personality Disorders<\/em>. 29 (5): 610\u201326. doi:10.1521\/pedi_2014_28_160. ISSN 0885-579X. PMID 25248013. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1745-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":17,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Personality Theory\",\"author\":\"Mark Kelland\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.oercommons.org\/authoring\/22859-personality-theory\/19\/view\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Personality Disorder\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personality_disorder#Causes\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Julie Manley for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Teen girl\",\"author\":\"Luisella Planeta Leoni\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/girl-relaxation-listening-music-3231703\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Pixabay License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Sad boy\",\"author\":\"PublicDomainPictures\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/sad-child-boy-kid-crying-tears-219722\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Pixabay License\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"b1852b6a-6daa-459a-ae71-7e4b350d0594, 224e0091-9d88-4014-8559-1884f7accdf8","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1745","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":154,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-abnormalpsych\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1745","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-abnormalpsych\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-abnormalpsych\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-abnormalpsych\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":34,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-abnormalpsych\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1745\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":7608,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-abnormalpsych\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1745\/revisions\/7608"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-abnormalpsych\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/154"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-abnormalpsych\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1745\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-abnormalpsych\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1745"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-abnormalpsych\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1745"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-abnormalpsych\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1745"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-abnormalpsych\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1745"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}