{"id":1288,"date":"2017-01-18T21:45:57","date_gmt":"2017-01-18T21:45:57","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-biology2\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=1288"},"modified":"2024-04-25T18:46:18","modified_gmt":"2024-04-25T18:46:18","slug":"role-of-prokaryotes-in-ecosystems","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-biology2\/chapter\/role-of-prokaryotes-in-ecosystems\/","title":{"raw":"Role of Prokaryotes in Ecosystems","rendered":"Role of Prokaryotes in Ecosystems"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe the roles of prokaryotes in the carbon cycle<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the roles of prokaryotes in the nitrogen cycle<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm47975664\">Prokaryotes are ubiquitous: There is no niche or ecosystem in which they are not present. Prokaryotes play many roles in the environments they occupy. The roles they play in the carbon and nitrogen cycles are vital to life on Earth. In addition, the current scientific consensus suggests that metabolically interactive prokaryotic communities may have been the basis for the emergence of eukaryotic cells.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm18679632\" data-depth=\"2\"><\/section>\r\n<h2>Prokaryotes and the Carbon Cycle<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp132815728\">Carbon is one of the most important macronutrients, and prokaryotes play an important role in the carbon cycle (Figure 1). The carbon cycle traces the movement of carbon from inorganic to organic compounds and back again. Carbon is cycled through Earth\u2019s major reservoirs: land, the atmosphere, aquatic environments, sediments and rocks, and biomass. In a way, the carbon cycle echoes the role of the \u201cfour elements\u201d first proposed by the ancient Greek philosopher, Empedocles: fire, water, earth, and air. Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by land plants and marine prokaryotes, and is returned to the atmosphere via the respiration of chemoorganotrophic organisms, including prokaryotes, fungi, and animals. Although the largest carbon reservoir in terrestrial ecosystems is in rocks and sediments, that carbon is not readily available.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm48166784\">Participants in the carbon cycle are roughly divided among producers, consumers, and decomposers of organic carbon compounds. The\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">primary producers<\/em>\u00a0of organic carbon compounds from CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0are land plants and photosynthetic bacteria. A large amount of available carbon is found in living land plants. A related source of carbon compounds is\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">humus<\/em>, which is a mixture of organic materials from dead plants and prokaryotes that have resisted decomposition. (The term \"humus,\" by the way, is the root of the word \"human.\") Consumers such as animals and other heterotrophs use organic compounds generated by producers and release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Other bacteria and fungi, collectively called\u00a0<strong><em data-effect=\"italics\"><span id=\"term864\" data-type=\"term\">decomposers<\/span><\/em><\/strong>, carry out the breakdown (decomposition) of plants and animals and their organic compounds. Most carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is derived from the respiration of microorganisms that decompose dead animals, plants, and humus.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp54591920\">In aqueous environments and their anoxic sediments, there is another carbon cycle taking place. In this case, the cycle is based on one-carbon compounds. In anoxic sediments, prokaryotes, mostly archaea, produce methane (CH<sub>4<\/sub>). This methane moves into the zone above the sediment, which is richer in oxygen and supports bacteria called\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">methane oxidizers<\/em>\u00a0that oxidize methane to carbon dioxide, which then returns to the atmosphere.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1289\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"800\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1289\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1223\/2017\/01\/18213151\/Figure_22_03_01-1024x713.jpg\" alt=\"This illustration shows the role of bacteria in the carbon cycle. Bacteria break down organic carbon, which is released as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.\" width=\"800\" height=\"557\" \/> Figure 1. Prokaryotes play a significant role in continuously moving carbon through the biosphere. (credit: modification of work by John M. Evans and Howard Perlman, USGS)[\/caption]\r\n<h2>Prokaryotes and the Nitrogen Cycle<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp73980592\">Nitrogen is a very important element for life because it is a major constituent of proteins and nucleic acids. It is a macronutrient, and in nature, it is recycled from organic compounds to ammonia, ammonium ions, nitrate, nitrite, and nitrogen gas by many processes, many of which are carried out only by prokaryotes. As illustrated in\u00a0Figure 2, prokaryotes are key to the nitrogen cycle. The largest pool of nitrogen available in the terrestrial ecosystem is\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">gaseous nitrogen<\/em>\u00a0(N<sub>2<\/sub>) from the air, but this nitrogen is not usable by plants, which are primary producers. Gaseous nitrogen is transformed, or \u201cfixed\u201d into more readily available forms, such as ammonia (NH<sub>3<\/sub>), through the process of\u00a0<span id=\"term865\" data-type=\"term\"><strong>nitrogen fixatio<\/strong>n<\/span>. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria include\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Azotobacter<\/em>\u00a0in soil and the ubiquitous photosynthetic cyanobacteria. Some nitrogen fixing bacteria, like\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Rhizobium<\/em>, live in symbiotic relationships in the roots of legumes.<\/p>\r\nAnother source of ammonia is\u00a0<strong><span id=\"term866\" data-type=\"term\">ammonification<\/span><\/strong>, the process by which ammonia is released during the decomposition of nitrogen-containing organic compounds. The ammonium ion is progressively oxidized by different species of bacteria in a process called nitrification. The nitrification process begins with the conversion of ammonium to nitrite (NO<sub>2<\/sub><sup>-<\/sup>), and continues with the conversion of nitrite to nitrate. Nitrification in soils is carried out by bacteria belonging to the genera\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Nitrosomas<\/em>,\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Nitrobacter<\/em>, and\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Nitrospira<\/em>. Most nitrogen in soil is in the form of ammonium (NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup>) or nitrate (NO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>-<\/sup>). Ammonia and nitrate can be used by plants or converted to other forms.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp501738704\">Ammonia released into the atmosphere, however, represents only 15 percent of the total nitrogen released; the rest is as N<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0and N<sub>2<\/sub>O (nitrous oxide). Ammonia is catabolized anaerobically by some prokaryotes, yielding N<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0as the final product. Denitrifying bacteria reverse the process of nitrification, reducing the nitrate from soils to gaseous compounds such as N<sub>2<\/sub>O, NO, and N<sub>2<\/sub>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1290\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"725\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1290\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1223\/2017\/01\/18213344\/Figure_22_03_02.png\" alt=\"This illustration shows the role of bacteria in the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules of legumes convert nitrogen gas, or N2, into organic nitrogen found in plants. Nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria produce ammonium ion, or NH4+. Decomposers, including bacteria and fungi, decompose organic matter, also releasing NH4+. Nitrification is the process by which nitrifying bacteria produce nitrites (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-). Nitrates are assimilated by plants, then animals, then decomposers. Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates to nitrogen gas, completing the cycle.\" width=\"725\" height=\"579\" \/> Figure 2. Prokaryotes play a key role in the nitrogen cycle. (credit: Environmental Protection Agency)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice Questions<\/h3>\r\nWhich of the following statements about the nitrogen cycle is false?\r\n<ol style=\"list-style-type: lower-alpha;\">\r\n \t<li>Nitrogen fixing bacteria exist on the root nodules of legumes and in the soil.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates (NO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup>) into nitrogen gas (N<sub>2<\/sub>).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ammonification is the process by which ammonium ion (NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup>) is released from decomposing organic compounds.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Nitrification is the process by which nitrites (NO<sub>2<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup>) are converted to ammonium ion (NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup>).<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"123240\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"123240\"]Answer d is false.\r\n\r\n[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\nThink about the conditions (temperature, light, pressure, and organic and inorganic materials) that you may find in a deep-sea hydrothermal vent. What type of prokaryotes, in terms of their metabolic needs (autotrophs, phototrophs, chemotrophs, etc.), would you expect to find there?\r\n\r\n[practice-area rows=\"4\"][\/practice-area]\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"566708\"]See Our Thoughts[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"566708\"]Responses will vary. In a deep-sea hydrothermal vent, there is no light, so prokaryotes would be chemotrophs instead of phototrophs. The source of carbon would be carbon dioxide dissolved in the ocean, so they would be autotrophs. There is not a lot of organic material in the ocean, so prokaryotes would probably use inorganic sources, thus they would be chemolitotrophs. The temperatures are very high in the hydrothermal vent, so the prokaryotes would be thermophilic.[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/08918646-a562-4e47-ae6d-57a585c19bdb\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/44bd70c3-769c-4d14-9f79-5556e4b3040e\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe the roles of prokaryotes in the carbon cycle<\/li>\n<li>Describe the roles of prokaryotes in the nitrogen cycle<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm47975664\">Prokaryotes are ubiquitous: There is no niche or ecosystem in which they are not present. Prokaryotes play many roles in the environments they occupy. The roles they play in the carbon and nitrogen cycles are vital to life on Earth. In addition, the current scientific consensus suggests that metabolically interactive prokaryotic communities may have been the basis for the emergence of eukaryotic cells.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-idm18679632\" data-depth=\"2\"><\/section>\n<h2>Prokaryotes and the Carbon Cycle<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp132815728\">Carbon is one of the most important macronutrients, and prokaryotes play an important role in the carbon cycle (Figure 1). The carbon cycle traces the movement of carbon from inorganic to organic compounds and back again. Carbon is cycled through Earth\u2019s major reservoirs: land, the atmosphere, aquatic environments, sediments and rocks, and biomass. In a way, the carbon cycle echoes the role of the \u201cfour elements\u201d first proposed by the ancient Greek philosopher, Empedocles: fire, water, earth, and air. Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by land plants and marine prokaryotes, and is returned to the atmosphere via the respiration of chemoorganotrophic organisms, including prokaryotes, fungi, and animals. Although the largest carbon reservoir in terrestrial ecosystems is in rocks and sediments, that carbon is not readily available.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm48166784\">Participants in the carbon cycle are roughly divided among producers, consumers, and decomposers of organic carbon compounds. The\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">primary producers<\/em>\u00a0of organic carbon compounds from CO<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0are land plants and photosynthetic bacteria. A large amount of available carbon is found in living land plants. A related source of carbon compounds is\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">humus<\/em>, which is a mixture of organic materials from dead plants and prokaryotes that have resisted decomposition. (The term &#8220;humus,&#8221; by the way, is the root of the word &#8220;human.&#8221;) Consumers such as animals and other heterotrophs use organic compounds generated by producers and release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Other bacteria and fungi, collectively called\u00a0<strong><em data-effect=\"italics\"><span id=\"term864\" data-type=\"term\">decomposers<\/span><\/em><\/strong>, carry out the breakdown (decomposition) of plants and animals and their organic compounds. Most carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is derived from the respiration of microorganisms that decompose dead animals, plants, and humus.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp54591920\">In aqueous environments and their anoxic sediments, there is another carbon cycle taking place. In this case, the cycle is based on one-carbon compounds. In anoxic sediments, prokaryotes, mostly archaea, produce methane (CH<sub>4<\/sub>). This methane moves into the zone above the sediment, which is richer in oxygen and supports bacteria called\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">methane oxidizers<\/em>\u00a0that oxidize methane to carbon dioxide, which then returns to the atmosphere.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1289\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1289\" class=\"wp-image-1289\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1223\/2017\/01\/18213151\/Figure_22_03_01-1024x713.jpg\" alt=\"This illustration shows the role of bacteria in the carbon cycle. Bacteria break down organic carbon, which is released as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.\" width=\"800\" height=\"557\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1289\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1. Prokaryotes play a significant role in continuously moving carbon through the biosphere. (credit: modification of work by John M. Evans and Howard Perlman, USGS)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Prokaryotes and the Nitrogen Cycle<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp73980592\">Nitrogen is a very important element for life because it is a major constituent of proteins and nucleic acids. It is a macronutrient, and in nature, it is recycled from organic compounds to ammonia, ammonium ions, nitrate, nitrite, and nitrogen gas by many processes, many of which are carried out only by prokaryotes. As illustrated in\u00a0Figure 2, prokaryotes are key to the nitrogen cycle. The largest pool of nitrogen available in the terrestrial ecosystem is\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">gaseous nitrogen<\/em>\u00a0(N<sub>2<\/sub>) from the air, but this nitrogen is not usable by plants, which are primary producers. Gaseous nitrogen is transformed, or \u201cfixed\u201d into more readily available forms, such as ammonia (NH<sub>3<\/sub>), through the process of\u00a0<span id=\"term865\" data-type=\"term\"><strong>nitrogen fixatio<\/strong>n<\/span>. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria include\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Azotobacter<\/em>\u00a0in soil and the ubiquitous photosynthetic cyanobacteria. Some nitrogen fixing bacteria, like\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Rhizobium<\/em>, live in symbiotic relationships in the roots of legumes.<\/p>\n<p>Another source of ammonia is\u00a0<strong><span id=\"term866\" data-type=\"term\">ammonification<\/span><\/strong>, the process by which ammonia is released during the decomposition of nitrogen-containing organic compounds. The ammonium ion is progressively oxidized by different species of bacteria in a process called nitrification. The nitrification process begins with the conversion of ammonium to nitrite (NO<sub>2<\/sub><sup>&#8211;<\/sup>), and continues with the conversion of nitrite to nitrate. Nitrification in soils is carried out by bacteria belonging to the genera\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Nitrosomas<\/em>,\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Nitrobacter<\/em>, and\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Nitrospira<\/em>. Most nitrogen in soil is in the form of ammonium (NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup>) or nitrate (NO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>&#8211;<\/sup>). Ammonia and nitrate can be used by plants or converted to other forms.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp501738704\">Ammonia released into the atmosphere, however, represents only 15 percent of the total nitrogen released; the rest is as N<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0and N<sub>2<\/sub>O (nitrous oxide). Ammonia is catabolized anaerobically by some prokaryotes, yielding N<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0as the final product. Denitrifying bacteria reverse the process of nitrification, reducing the nitrate from soils to gaseous compounds such as N<sub>2<\/sub>O, NO, and N<sub>2<\/sub>.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1290\" style=\"width: 735px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1290\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1290\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1223\/2017\/01\/18213344\/Figure_22_03_02.png\" alt=\"This illustration shows the role of bacteria in the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules of legumes convert nitrogen gas, or N2, into organic nitrogen found in plants. Nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria produce ammonium ion, or NH4+. Decomposers, including bacteria and fungi, decompose organic matter, also releasing NH4+. Nitrification is the process by which nitrifying bacteria produce nitrites (NO2-) and nitrates (NO3-). Nitrates are assimilated by plants, then animals, then decomposers. Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates to nitrogen gas, completing the cycle.\" width=\"725\" height=\"579\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1290\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 2. Prokaryotes play a key role in the nitrogen cycle. (credit: Environmental Protection Agency)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice Questions<\/h3>\n<p>Which of the following statements about the nitrogen cycle is false?<\/p>\n<ol style=\"list-style-type: lower-alpha;\">\n<li>Nitrogen fixing bacteria exist on the root nodules of legumes and in the soil.<\/li>\n<li>Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates (NO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup>) into nitrogen gas (N<sub>2<\/sub>).<\/li>\n<li>Ammonification is the process by which ammonium ion (NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup>) is released from decomposing organic compounds.<\/li>\n<li>Nitrification is the process by which nitrites (NO<sub>2<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup>) are converted to ammonium ion (NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup>).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q123240\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q123240\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">Answer d is false.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Think about the conditions (temperature, light, pressure, and organic and inorganic materials) that you may find in a deep-sea hydrothermal vent. What type of prokaryotes, in terms of their metabolic needs (autotrophs, phototrophs, chemotrophs, etc.), would you expect to find there?<\/p>\n<p><textarea aria-label=\"Your Answer\" rows=\"4\"><\/textarea><\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q566708\">See Our Thoughts<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q566708\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">Responses will vary. In a deep-sea hydrothermal vent, there is no light, so prokaryotes would be chemotrophs instead of phototrophs. The source of carbon would be carbon dioxide dissolved in the ocean, so they would be autotrophs. There is not a lot of organic material in the ocean, so prokaryotes would probably use inorganic sources, thus they would be chemolitotrophs. The temperatures are very high in the hydrothermal vent, so the prokaryotes would be thermophilic.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_08918646-a562-4e47-ae6d-57a585c19bdb\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/08918646-a562-4e47-ae6d-57a585c19bdb?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_08918646-a562-4e47-ae6d-57a585c19bdb\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><br \/>\n\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_44bd70c3-769c-4d14-9f79-5556e4b3040e\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/44bd70c3-769c-4d14-9f79-5556e4b3040e?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_44bd70c3-769c-4d14-9f79-5556e4b3040e\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-1288\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Biology 2e. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-f14f21b5eabd@10.8\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-f14f21b5eabd@10.8<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/biology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":17,"menu_order":13,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Biology 2e\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-f14f21b5eabd@10.8\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/biology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"7a706dab-4531-4bd3-87b3-4948cf755590, aff78ce2-6e02-432f-8006-771ee786fc17, ee644ec0-206c-4a57-9397-cc9a4b4634e2","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1288","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":1195,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-biology2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1288","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-biology2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-biology2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-biology2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/17"}],"version-history":[{"count":12,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-biology2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1288\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":8303,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-biology2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1288\/revisions\/8303"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-biology2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/1195"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-biology2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1288\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-biology2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1288"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-biology2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1288"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-biology2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1288"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-biology2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1288"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}