Elements in Citation

Learning Objectives

Identify shared elements in different citation styles

Recognize common uses of different citation styles

Most citations require two parts:

  • The full bibliographic citation on the Bibliography page or References page, or Works Cited page of your final product.
  • An indication within your text (usually author and publication date and maybe the page number from which you are quoting) that tells your reader where you have used something that needs a citation.

With your in-text citation, your reader will be able to tell which full bibliographic citation you are referring to by paying attention to the author’s name and publication date.

In-text Citations

When writing an academic paper, you need to indicate in your text when you are using the words or ideas of an outside source. This is not only true when you are using exact language but also when you are paraphrasing or summarizing material. Sources can be virtually any form of information you choose to include in a research project: text from books, articles, or websites, images and photographs, audio, video, artworks, or even tweets.

MLA uses parenthetical citations, typically the author’s last name and a page number. Quotation marks must be used when you are borrowing exact language (approximately five or more words), but not when you are paraphrasing or summarizing. If you refer to the author in your text, the author’s name does not need to be included in the parentheses.

The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) prefers notations — superscript numbers that denote the use of external sources and refer to corresponding footnotes (at the bottom of the page) or endnotes (at the end of a paper, chapter, or book).

MLA Parenthetical Citation

In recent years, a powerful grassroots movement has contributed to the rise in community-supported agriculture, the explosion in the sale of vegetable seeds, and the proliferation of farmers’ markets (Thackara 53).

The information in parentheses coordinates with a list of full citations at the end of the paper. In MLA, the citations are arranged alphabetically by author in a section titled Works Cited. The Works Cited list is typically included on a new page following the main body of the paper.

At the end of the paper, these bibliographic entries appear in a Works Cited list:

Thackara, John. How to Thrive in the Next Economy: Designing Tomorrow’s World Today. Thames & Hudson, 2015.

APA PARENTHETICAL Citation

Studies have shown that compared to passive learning, which occurs when students observe a lecture, students will learn more and will retain that learning longer if more active methods of teaching and learning are used (Bonwell and Eison 1991; Fink 2003).

The information in parentheses coordinates with a list of full citations at the end of the paper.

At the end of the paper, these bibliographic entries appear in a reference list:

Bonwell, C. G., and Eison, J. A.1991. “Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom.” ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Rep. No. 1, George Washington Univ., Washington, D.C.

Fink, L. D. 2003. Creating significant learning experiences, Wiley, New York.

CMS Note

In recent years, a powerful grassroots movement has contributed to the rise in community-supported agriculture, the explosion in the sale of vegetable seeds, and the proliferation of farmers’ markets.1

In CMS, the author chooses to employ either footnotes, appearing in the footer of the same page as the in-text citation, or endnotes, a numerically-ordered list at the end of the paper, chapter, or book. Longer works will also include an alphabetically-ordered bibliography on a new page following the main body of the paper. If you are unsure of whether to use footnotes, endnotes, and/or a bibliography, ask your instructor for their preference.

1. John Thackara, How to Thrive in the Next Economy: Designing Tomorrow’s World Today (New York: Thames & Hudson, 2015), 53.

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Citation Styles

Style guides set the specific rules for how to create both in-text citations and their full bibliographic citations.

There are over a dozen kinds of citation styles. While each style requires much of the same publication information to be included in a citation, the styles differ from each other in formatting details such as capitalization, punctuation, order of publication information, and whether the author’s name is given in full or abbreviated.

Examples: Differences in Citation Styles

The image below shows bibliographic citations in four common styles. Notice that they contain information about who the author is, article title, journal title, publication year, and information about volume, issue, and pages. Notice also the small differences in punctuation, order of the elements, and formatting that do make a difference.

MLA MacDonald, Susan Peck. “The Erasure of Language.” College Composition and Communication, vol. 58, no. 4, 2007, pp. 585-625.
APA MacDonald, S. P.  (2007). The erasure of language. College Composition and Communication, 58(4), 585-625.
Chicago MacDonald, Susan Peck. “The Erasure of Language.” College Composition and Communication 58, no. 4 (2007): 585-625.

Which Style Should I Use?

Citation styles define how citations or references are organized and formatted within a paper.  The three most commonly used citation styles in higher education include:

  • Modern Language Association (MLA) Style: used in literature, arts, humanities, and some other disciplines.
  • Chicago Manual of Style (CMS): used most often in history, art, and visual studies. Sometimes referred to as Turabian.
  • American Psychological Association (APA) Style: used in social sciences such as anthropology, business, psychology, sociology, and political science.

If you are not sure which one to use, ask your instructor what citation style they prefer you to use for your assignments.

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