{"id":231,"date":"2021-03-30T16:35:00","date_gmt":"2021-03-30T16:35:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomp2\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=231"},"modified":"2022-07-25T19:31:04","modified_gmt":"2022-07-25T19:31:04","slug":"experiment-and-evidence","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomp2\/chapter\/experiment-and-evidence\/","title":{"raw":"Experiment and Evidence","rendered":"Experiment and Evidence"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\nEvaluate experimental results as evidence\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nIn the sciences, evidence comes largely from experimental results, or data.\r\n\r\nWhether you're writing about your own experimental research or using another researcher's data to support your own argument, it's important to understand how experimental results are used as evidence of scientific claims.\r\n\r\nScientists collect two kinds of data through their experiments:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Quantitative<\/strong> data looks at issues of how many. How many cells died as a result of treating them with a particular chemical compound? How many registered Republicans live in New York City?<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Qualitative<\/strong> data looks at issues of value. How does a student feel about (or value) herself in class? How does a teacher feel about (or value) the state\u2019s imposed curriculum? Why is there a tendency to teach (or value) the curriculum differently in working class v. upper middle class schools?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nDifferent experimental protocols support collecting quantitative and qualitative data. Regardless, all scientists (from Biochemistry to Social Psychology) use the scientific method.\r\n<h2>Scientific Method<\/h2>\r\nThe scientific process typically starts with an observation (often a problem to be solved) that leads to a question. The initial answer to this question is called a <strong>hypothesis<\/strong>. A\u00a0hypothesis is an educated guess that can be tested. To solve one problem, several hypotheses may be proposed.\r\n\r\nOnce the hypothesis is formed, it's time to test it. Scientists\u00a0design experiments to test the hypothesis in a laboratory or naturalistic (real-world) setting. Each experiment will have one or more <strong>variables<\/strong> and one or more <strong>controls<\/strong>. A variable is any part of the experiment that can vary or change during the experiment. The control group contains every feature of the experimental group except it is not given the manipulation that is hypothesized.\u00a0A <strong>significant<\/strong> result passes a statistical analysis that demonstrates that there is less than a certain probability (usually 5%) that the result observed is from random chance.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/14387951-433d-4c17-8175-2d5098c3adaa\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nWatch this video for an explanation of the scientific method, and how evidence is used in scientific writing.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=7039914&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=5KKsLuRPsvU&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-tumc2tsn-5KKsLuRPsvU\" width=\"800px\" height=\"450px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\nIn your previous science writing experience, you may have come across the Claim, Evidence, Reasoning (CER) framework. According to the CER model:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">The researcher starts with a question<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">Gathers evidence to answer the question through experiments<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">Forms a claim based on the evidence<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">Explains the connection between the evidence and claim through reasoning. This reasoning should be grounded in established scientific definitions and principles.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nThis framework is useful for our purposes because it shows how similar science writing is to the other writing processes we've been looking at. We start with a question, gather evidence about this question through research, and then use reasoning to connect the evidence to a claim.\r\n<h2>Do Newer Experimental Results Replace Older Ones?<\/h2>\r\nPeople tend to think that newer is better with everything. Sometimes this is true: new phones are better than old phones and new textbooks are often more up-to-date than old textbooks. But the understanding many students have about scholarly articles is that the newer studies \u201creplace\u201d the older studies. You see this assumption in the headline: \u201cIt\u2019s Official: European Scientific Journal Concludes\u2026\u201d\r\n\r\nIn general, that\u2019s not how science works. In science, multiple conflicting studies come in over long periods of time, each one a drop in the bucket of the claim it supports. Over time, the weight of the evidence ends up on one side or another. Depending on the quality of the new research, some drops are bigger than others (some much bigger), but overall it is an incremental process.\r\n\r\nAs such, studies that are consistent with previous research are often more trustworthy than those that have surprising or unexpected results. This runs counter to the narrative promoted by the press: \u201cnews,\u201d after all, favors what is new and different. The unfortunate effect of the press\u2019s presentation of science (and in particular science around popular issues such as health) is that they would rather not give a sense of the slow accumulation of evidence for each side of an issue. Their narrative often presents a world where last month\u2019s findings are \u201coverturned\u201d by this month\u2019s findings, which are then, in turn, \u201coverturned\u201d back to the original finding a month from now. This whiplash presentation \u201cChocolate is good for you! Chocolate is bad for you!\u201d undermines the public\u2019s faith in science. But the whiplash is not from science: it is a product of the inappropriate presentation from the press.\r\n\r\nWhen writing about experimental results, your job is not to resolve debates based on new evidence, but to accurately summarize the state of research and the consensus of experts in a given area, taking into account majority and significant minority views.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<p>Evaluate experimental results as evidence<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>In the sciences, evidence comes largely from experimental results, or data.<\/p>\n<p>Whether you&#8217;re writing about your own experimental research or using another researcher&#8217;s data to support your own argument, it&#8217;s important to understand how experimental results are used as evidence of scientific claims.<\/p>\n<p>Scientists collect two kinds of data through their experiments:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Quantitative<\/strong> data looks at issues of how many. How many cells died as a result of treating them with a particular chemical compound? How many registered Republicans live in New York City?<\/li>\n<li><strong>Qualitative<\/strong> data looks at issues of value. How does a student feel about (or value) herself in class? How does a teacher feel about (or value) the state\u2019s imposed curriculum? Why is there a tendency to teach (or value) the curriculum differently in working class v. upper middle class schools?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Different experimental protocols support collecting quantitative and qualitative data. Regardless, all scientists (from Biochemistry to Social Psychology) use the scientific method.<\/p>\n<h2>Scientific Method<\/h2>\n<p>The scientific process typically starts with an observation (often a problem to be solved) that leads to a question. The initial answer to this question is called a <strong>hypothesis<\/strong>. A\u00a0hypothesis is an educated guess that can be tested. To solve one problem, several hypotheses may be proposed.<\/p>\n<p>Once the hypothesis is formed, it&#8217;s time to test it. Scientists\u00a0design experiments to test the hypothesis in a laboratory or naturalistic (real-world) setting. Each experiment will have one or more <strong>variables<\/strong> and one or more <strong>controls<\/strong>. A variable is any part of the experiment that can vary or change during the experiment. The control group contains every feature of the experimental group except it is not given the manipulation that is hypothesized.\u00a0A <strong>significant<\/strong> result passes a statistical analysis that demonstrates that there is less than a certain probability (usually 5%) that the result observed is from random chance.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_14387951-433d-4c17-8175-2d5098c3adaa\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/14387951-433d-4c17-8175-2d5098c3adaa?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_14387951-433d-4c17-8175-2d5098c3adaa\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Watch this video for an explanation of the scientific method, and how evidence is used in scientific writing.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=7039914&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=5KKsLuRPsvU&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-tumc2tsn-5KKsLuRPsvU\" width=\"800px\" height=\"450px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>In your previous science writing experience, you may have come across the Claim, Evidence, Reasoning (CER) framework. According to the CER model:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">The researcher starts with a question<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">Gathers evidence to answer the question through experiments<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">Forms a claim based on the evidence<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">Explains the connection between the evidence and claim through reasoning. This reasoning should be grounded in established scientific definitions and principles.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>This framework is useful for our purposes because it shows how similar science writing is to the other writing processes we&#8217;ve been looking at. We start with a question, gather evidence about this question through research, and then use reasoning to connect the evidence to a claim.<\/p>\n<h2>Do Newer Experimental Results Replace Older Ones?<\/h2>\n<p>People tend to think that newer is better with everything. Sometimes this is true: new phones are better than old phones and new textbooks are often more up-to-date than old textbooks. But the understanding many students have about scholarly articles is that the newer studies \u201creplace\u201d the older studies. You see this assumption in the headline: \u201cIt\u2019s Official: European Scientific Journal Concludes\u2026\u201d<\/p>\n<p>In general, that\u2019s not how science works. In science, multiple conflicting studies come in over long periods of time, each one a drop in the bucket of the claim it supports. Over time, the weight of the evidence ends up on one side or another. Depending on the quality of the new research, some drops are bigger than others (some much bigger), but overall it is an incremental process.<\/p>\n<p>As such, studies that are consistent with previous research are often more trustworthy than those that have surprising or unexpected results. This runs counter to the narrative promoted by the press: \u201cnews,\u201d after all, favors what is new and different. The unfortunate effect of the press\u2019s presentation of science (and in particular science around popular issues such as health) is that they would rather not give a sense of the slow accumulation of evidence for each side of an issue. Their narrative often presents a world where last month\u2019s findings are \u201coverturned\u201d by this month\u2019s findings, which are then, in turn, \u201coverturned\u201d back to the original finding a month from now. This whiplash presentation \u201cChocolate is good for you! Chocolate is bad for you!\u201d undermines the public\u2019s faith in science. But the whiplash is not from science: it is a product of the inappropriate presentation from the press.<\/p>\n<p>When writing about experimental results, your job is not to resolve debates based on new evidence, but to accurately summarize the state of research and the consensus of experts in a given area, taking into account majority and significant minority views.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-231\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Scientific Method. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/introchem\/chapter\/the-scientific-method\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/introchem\/chapter\/the-scientific-method\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>How to Think About Research . <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Michael A. Caulfield. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/webliteracy.pressbooks.com\/chapter\/how-to-think-about-research\/\">https:\/\/webliteracy.pressbooks.com\/chapter\/how-to-think-about-research\/<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Web Literacy for Student Fact Checkers. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Counting birds. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Lowe Roy, USFWS. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pixnio.com\/science\/biology-pictures\/people-counting-laysan-albatross-nest\">https:\/\/pixnio.com\/science\/biology-pictures\/people-counting-laysan-albatross-nest<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Lumen Learning authored content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Experiment and Evidence. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":161083,"menu_order":11,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"lumen\",\"description\":\"Experiment and Evidence\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Scientific Method\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/introchem\/chapter\/the-scientific-method\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"How to Think About Research \",\"author\":\"Michael A. Caulfield\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/webliteracy.pressbooks.com\/chapter\/how-to-think-about-research\/\",\"project\":\"Web Literacy for Student Fact Checkers\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Counting birds\",\"author\":\"Lowe Roy, USFWS\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/pixnio.com\/science\/biology-pictures\/people-counting-laysan-albatross-nest\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc0\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"bb53b40c-09ee-4e7f-995d-abd2d0cf32b4, 49de6814-8aec-446f-bf64-f2a25bf4d71b","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-231","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":65,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomp2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/231","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomp2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomp2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomp2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/161083"}],"version-history":[{"count":20,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomp2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/231\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":4171,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomp2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/231\/revisions\/4171"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomp2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/65"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomp2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/231\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomp2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=231"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomp2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=231"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomp2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=231"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomp2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=231"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}