{"id":347,"date":"2021-03-30T17:16:51","date_gmt":"2021-03-30T17:16:51","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomp2\/?post_type=chapter&p=347"},"modified":"2022-07-25T19:31:16","modified_gmt":"2022-07-25T19:31:16","slug":"designing-research-backwards","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomp2\/chapter\/designing-research-backwards\/","title":{"raw":"Designing Research Backwards","rendered":"Designing Research Backwards"},"content":{"raw":"
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Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\nUse backward design principles to identify the most effective combination of content and delivery\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nCompare these two scenarios:\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
Scenario 1<\/caption>\r\n
Hassan:<\/td>\r\nMy paper is about the minimum wage.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Aisha:<\/td>\r\nGreat. What what do you want to say about it?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Hassan:<\/td>\r\nThat it should be higher.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Aisha:<\/td>\r\nSounds good. What\u2019s the next step?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Hassan:<\/td>\r\nWell, I don\u2019t know where to start\u2026 I mean, I know what I want to say, I just don\u2019t know how to say it\u2026\u00a0 Also, how long does this have to be? I feel like it\u2019s so obvious that it has to be raised\u2026\u00a0 Do I need quotes? \u2026 I don\u2019t know how I can make this 6 pages long\u2026.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n \r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
Scenario 2<\/caption>\r\n
Hassan:<\/td>\r\nMy paper is about the minimum wage.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Aisha:<\/td>\r\nGreat. Who's your reader, and what do you want them to learn from your paper?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Hassan:<\/td>\r\nMy reader is someone who wants to reduce poverty, but isn\u2019t sure that raising the minimum wage will do that. At the end of my paper, I want them to understand why raising the minimum wage is very likely to reduce poverty.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Aisha:<\/td>\r\nSounds good. What\u2019s the next step?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Hassan:<\/td>\r\nI need to keep finding evidence that this is true. Once I find enough evidence to convince this reader that raising the minimum wage is a good way to reduce poverty, I have everything I need for the paper. I just need to put it all together.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nIn Scenario 2, Hassan's off to a much better start. What's the difference? In the second scenario, rather than asking Hassan what he wants to say about the minimum wage, Aisha asks him about the specific end goal of this paper: \"Who's your reader, and what do you want them to learn from your paper?\"<\/strong>\r\n\r\nThe strategy of starting from the end goal and working backwards has a name in teaching and learning theory: \"Backward Design.\" The basic principle of Backward Design is very simple: start by establishing what you want people to know or understand by the end of the lesson, and then work out how to get there.\u00a0 Rather than asking \"what do I know about this topic and how can I teach it to my students,\" a teacher using Backward Design principles will ask \"what do my students need to know about this topic and how will I know if they've learned it?\"[footnote]You may have noticed that many of the pages in this course start out with gray box labeled \"Learning Objectives.\"\u2014telling you in advance what you'll learn on the page. That's because this course, like many of the classes you'll take in college, was created using Backward Design principles.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nOK, so what does this discussion of teaching, learning, and Backward Design have to do with writing? The dialogues above show the power of\u00a0switching to a Backwards Design model for writing. Rather than asking \"what do I want to say about this subject,\" ask \"what do I want my reader to learn from this paper?<\/strong>\"\u00a0This approach implies two other questions: \"Who is my intended reader, and what information does this specific reader need in order to follow my argument?\"\r\n\r\nLet's revisit Scenario 1 with these questions in mind and help Hassan break the \u201cI know what I want to say, I just don\u2019t know how to say it\u201d loop by introducing him to Backward Design.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
Hassan:<\/td>\r\nMy paper is about the minimum wage.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Us:<\/td>\r\nGreat. What about it?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Hassan:<\/td>\r\nThat it should be higher.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Us:<\/td>\r\nSounds good. So, by the end of your paper, your reader will realize that the minimum wage should be higher.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Hassan:<\/td>\r\nRight.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Us:<\/td>\r\nBut who needs to understand that it should be higher?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Hassan:<\/td>\r\nEveryone?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Us:<\/td>\r\nWhat about someone who already wrote a book about raising the minimum wage?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Hassan:<\/td>\r\nWell, they already know it, so no.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Us:<\/td>\r\nWhat about someone who thinks there should be no minimum wage at all? That businesses should be able to pay whatever people are willing to work for, no matter how low? So, for this person, no evidence will show them that raising the current minimum wage would be good.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Hassan:<\/td>\r\nSo, how do I know who to write to?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Us:<\/td>\r\nLet\u2019s start at the end. You want them to be someone who, if given enough evidence, would realize that the minimum wage should be higher. So that means that they don\u2019t yet believe it, but they would if you gave them enough evidence.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Hassan:<\/td>\r\nMaybe someone who thinks that we can\u2019t afford it? Or, that it would raise taxes too much?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Us:<\/td>\r\nYes! So, if your reader thinks these two things -- that we can\u2019t afford it, and that it would raise taxes too much \u2013 if you find evidence that we can afford it and that we can do it without raising taxes too much, then you might have a very good chance of helping them realize that the minimum wage should be higher by the end of your paper.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nHassan\u2019s project was transformed from \u201ctalking about how the minimum wage should be higher\u201d to \u201cteaching a reader who believes that raising the minimum wage would be unaffordable and\/or would raise taxes too high that neither of these fears is actually true.\u201d Knowing his reader\u2019s start and end points (what they believe before and after reading this paper) has taken the job of the paper from a very general \u201ctalk about ______\u201d (which has no start or end point, and therefore no clear pathway) to a very specific \u201cteach a reader who currently believes ____________ that the truth is really ___________ (which has a very clear start and end point, and therefore a pathway).\r\n\r\nBut here is a truth about thesis writing that should come as a huge relief: starting with your reader and what they need will basically write the thesis for you; as soon as you figure out this reader and their endpoint and starting point, the thesis just happens.\r\n\r\nHassan\u2019s original thesis was \u201cThe minimum wage should be higher\u201d (which, as we saw, leaves him with no clear beginning or end, and therefore not sense of the pathway of the paper). His newer paper\u2019s thesis would more like, \u201cWhile some may worry that raising the minimum wage would be unaffordable or present too big a tax burden, this paper will present evidence that neither of these assumptions is true.\u201d\u00a0Hassan really didn\u2019t have to \u201ccome up with\u201d the second thesis because that thesis emerged out of the understanding of the end goal of the paper, which was to take a reader who currently believed ________ and help them realize ________.\r\n\r\nResearch writers in any field \u2013 from economics to communication to history to health science \u2013 don\u2019t sit there and \u201ccome up with\u201d a thesis for their published papers. Instead, their ideas emerge out of a response to what other people in their field have been doing. So, if an economist were writing about raising the minimum wage, she would only write this because others in her field were publishing arguments against raising it. She knows what she needs to write because of what she sees others in her field saying.\r\n

To Recap:<\/h2>\r\nA Backward Design approach has you begin with the end goal of your paper, which means that you start by developing a clear sense of what you want your reader to know or realize by the end of your paper. The unspoken part of this process is that you can\u2019t know what this reader needs or how to teach it to them unless you also know where they are now \u2013 what their current understanding of your topic is. So, you just make that decision: are you writing to someone who believes there should be no minimum wage? If so, then (a) your paper\u2019s goal will now be to help them realize that there indeed should be a minimum wage; and (b) your research goal is to find the best evidence to take this reader to this realization. If you decide that most people really do believe there should be a minimum wage, but many want it to stay under $10 (for example), then your paper\u2019s goal would now be to help this reader realize that it should be higher; and your research goal is to find the best evidence to make this specific job happen.\r\n\r\nOnce you know the starting point and the endpoint, you have all of the key ingredients of the paper: the thesis has already been developed, and the questions about how to get the reader from their starting point to that endpoint can all be answered by relying upon your existing sense of how to help anyone who needs to learn something that you already know.\r\n
\r\n

Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/72fda068-f0ca-4108-ab69-a3c59bdfa8dd\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n ","rendered":"
\n

Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n

Use backward design principles to identify the most effective combination of content and delivery<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Compare these two scenarios:<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Scenario 1<\/caption>\n
Hassan:<\/td>\nMy paper is about the minimum wage.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Aisha:<\/td>\nGreat. What what do you want to say about it?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Hassan:<\/td>\nThat it should be higher.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Aisha:<\/td>\nSounds good. What\u2019s the next step?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Hassan:<\/td>\nWell, I don\u2019t know where to start\u2026 I mean, I know what I want to say, I just don\u2019t know how to say it\u2026\u00a0 Also, how long does this have to be? I feel like it\u2019s so obvious that it has to be raised\u2026\u00a0 Do I need quotes? \u2026 I don\u2019t know how I can make this 6 pages long\u2026.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Scenario 2<\/caption>\n
Hassan:<\/td>\nMy paper is about the minimum wage.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Aisha:<\/td>\nGreat. Who’s your reader, and what do you want them to learn from your paper?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Hassan:<\/td>\nMy reader is someone who wants to reduce poverty, but isn\u2019t sure that raising the minimum wage will do that. At the end of my paper, I want them to understand why raising the minimum wage is very likely to reduce poverty.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Aisha:<\/td>\nSounds good. What\u2019s the next step?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Hassan:<\/td>\nI need to keep finding evidence that this is true. Once I find enough evidence to convince this reader that raising the minimum wage is a good way to reduce poverty, I have everything I need for the paper. I just need to put it all together.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

In Scenario 2, Hassan’s off to a much better start. What’s the difference? In the second scenario, rather than asking Hassan what he wants to say about the minimum wage, Aisha asks him about the specific end goal of this paper: “Who’s your reader, and what do you want them to learn from your paper?”<\/strong><\/p>\n

The strategy of starting from the end goal and working backwards has a name in teaching and learning theory: “Backward Design.” The basic principle of Backward Design is very simple: start by establishing what you want people to know or understand by the end of the lesson, and then work out how to get there.\u00a0 Rather than asking “what do I know about this topic and how can I teach it to my students,” a teacher using Backward Design principles will ask “what do my students need to know about this topic and how will I know if they’ve learned it?”[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

OK, so what does this discussion of teaching, learning, and Backward Design have to do with writing? The dialogues above show the power of\u00a0switching to a Backwards Design model for writing. Rather than asking “what do I want to say about this subject,” ask “what do I want my reader to learn from this paper?<\/strong>”\u00a0This approach implies two other questions: “Who is my intended reader, and what information does this specific reader need in order to follow my argument?”<\/p>\n

Let’s revisit Scenario 1 with these questions in mind and help Hassan break the \u201cI know what I want to say, I just don\u2019t know how to say it\u201d loop by introducing him to Backward Design.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Hassan:<\/td>\nMy paper is about the minimum wage.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Us:<\/td>\nGreat. What about it?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Hassan:<\/td>\nThat it should be higher.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Us:<\/td>\nSounds good. So, by the end of your paper, your reader will realize that the minimum wage should be higher.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Hassan:<\/td>\nRight.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Us:<\/td>\nBut who needs to understand that it should be higher?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Hassan:<\/td>\nEveryone?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Us:<\/td>\nWhat about someone who already wrote a book about raising the minimum wage?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Hassan:<\/td>\nWell, they already know it, so no.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Us:<\/td>\nWhat about someone who thinks there should be no minimum wage at all? That businesses should be able to pay whatever people are willing to work for, no matter how low? So, for this person, no evidence will show them that raising the current minimum wage would be good.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Hassan:<\/td>\nSo, how do I know who to write to?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Us:<\/td>\nLet\u2019s start at the end. You want them to be someone who, if given enough evidence, would realize that the minimum wage should be higher. So that means that they don\u2019t yet believe it, but they would if you gave them enough evidence.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Hassan:<\/td>\nMaybe someone who thinks that we can\u2019t afford it? Or, that it would raise taxes too much?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Us:<\/td>\nYes! So, if your reader thinks these two things — that we can\u2019t afford it, and that it would raise taxes too much \u2013 if you find evidence that we can afford it and that we can do it without raising taxes too much, then you might have a very good chance of helping them realize that the minimum wage should be higher by the end of your paper.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

Hassan\u2019s project was transformed from \u201ctalking about how the minimum wage should be higher\u201d to \u201cteaching a reader who believes that raising the minimum wage would be unaffordable and\/or would raise taxes too high that neither of these fears is actually true.\u201d Knowing his reader\u2019s start and end points (what they believe before and after reading this paper) has taken the job of the paper from a very general \u201ctalk about ______\u201d (which has no start or end point, and therefore no clear pathway) to a very specific \u201cteach a reader who currently believes ____________ that the truth is really ___________ (which has a very clear start and end point, and therefore a pathway).<\/p>\n

But here is a truth about thesis writing that should come as a huge relief: starting with your reader and what they need will basically write the thesis for you; as soon as you figure out this reader and their endpoint and starting point, the thesis just happens.<\/p>\n

Hassan\u2019s original thesis was \u201cThe minimum wage should be higher\u201d (which, as we saw, leaves him with no clear beginning or end, and therefore not sense of the pathway of the paper). His newer paper\u2019s thesis would more like, \u201cWhile some may worry that raising the minimum wage would be unaffordable or present too big a tax burden, this paper will present evidence that neither of these assumptions is true.\u201d\u00a0Hassan really didn\u2019t have to \u201ccome up with\u201d the second thesis because that thesis emerged out of the understanding of the end goal of the paper, which was to take a reader who currently believed ________ and help them realize ________.<\/p>\n

Research writers in any field \u2013 from economics to communication to history to health science \u2013 don\u2019t sit there and \u201ccome up with\u201d a thesis for their published papers. Instead, their ideas emerge out of a response to what other people in their field have been doing. So, if an economist were writing about raising the minimum wage, she would only write this because others in her field were publishing arguments against raising it. She knows what she needs to write because of what she sees others in her field saying.<\/p>\n

To Recap:<\/h2>\n

A Backward Design approach has you begin with the end goal of your paper, which means that you start by developing a clear sense of what you want your reader to know or realize by the end of your paper. The unspoken part of this process is that you can\u2019t know what this reader needs or how to teach it to them unless you also know where they are now \u2013 what their current understanding of your topic is. So, you just make that decision: are you writing to someone who believes there should be no minimum wage? If so, then (a) your paper\u2019s goal will now be to help them realize that there indeed should be a minimum wage; and (b) your research goal is to find the best evidence to take this reader to this realization. If you decide that most people really do believe there should be a minimum wage, but many want it to stay under $10 (for example), then your paper\u2019s goal would now be to help this reader realize that it should be higher; and your research goal is to find the best evidence to make this specific job happen.<\/p>\n

Once you know the starting point and the endpoint, you have all of the key ingredients of the paper: the thesis has already been developed, and the questions about how to get the reader from their starting point to that endpoint can all be answered by relying upon your existing sense of how to help anyone who needs to learn something that you already know.<\/p>\n

\n

Try It<\/h3>\n

\t