{"id":119,"date":"2016-04-29T01:48:42","date_gmt":"2016-04-29T01:48:42","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontosociology-waymaker\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=119"},"modified":"2024-04-25T14:45:34","modified_gmt":"2024-04-25T14:45:34","slug":"types-of-groups","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/chapter\/types-of-groups\/","title":{"raw":"Types of Groups","rendered":"Types of Groups"},"content":{"raw":"<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe the functions of a variety of groups (i.e. primary\/secondary, in-groups\/out-groups, and reference groups)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nMost of us feel comfortable using the word \u201cgroup\u201d without giving it much thought. In everyday use, it can be a generic term, although it carries important clinical and scientific meanings. Moreover, the concept of a group is central to much of how we think about society and human interaction. Often, we might mean different things by using that word. We might say that a group of kids all saw the dog, and it could mean 250 students in a lecture hall or four siblings playing on a front lawn. In everyday conversation, there isn\u2019t a clear distinguishing use. So how can we more precisely focus the meaning for sociological purposes?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-id2835017\">\r\n<h2>Defining a Group<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2854136\">The term <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1855855\">group<\/span><\/strong> is an amorphous one and can refer to a wide variety of gatherings, from just two people (think about a \u201cgroup project\u201d in school when you partnered with another student), a club, a regular gathering of friends, or people who work together or share a hobby. In short, the term refers to any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share a sense that their identity is somehow aligned with the group. Of course, every time people are gathered it is not necessarily a group. A rally is usually a one-time event, for instance, and belonging to a political party doesn\u2019t imply interaction with others. People who exist in the same place at the same time but who do not interact or share a sense of identity\u2014such as a bunch of people standing in line at Starbucks\u2014are considered an <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1164824\">aggregate<\/span><\/strong>, or a crowd. Another example of a nongroup is people who share similar characteristics but are not tied to one another in any way. These people are considered a <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2836177\">category<\/span><\/strong>, and as an example all children born from approximately 1980\u20132000 are referred to as \u201cMillennials.\u201d Why are Millennials a category and not a group? Because while some of them may share a sense of identity, they do not, as a whole, interact frequently with each other.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1353991\">Interestingly, people within an aggregate or category can become a group. During disasters, people in a neighborhood (an aggregate) who did not know each other might become friendly and depend on each other at the local shelter. After the disaster ends and the people go back to simply living near each other, the feeling of cohesiveness may last since they have all shared an experience. They might remain a group, practicing emergency readiness, coordinating supplies for next time, or taking turns caring for neighbors who need extra help. Similarly, there may be many groups within a single category. Consider teachers, for example. Within this category, groups may exist like teachers\u2019 unions, teachers who coach, or staff members who are involved with the PTA.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id2639486\">\r\n<h2>Types of Groups<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id3083699\">Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley (1864\u20131929) suggested that groups can broadly be divided into two categories: <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2715953\">primary groups<\/span><\/strong> and <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1556482\">secondary groups<\/span><\/strong> (Cooley 1909). According to Cooley, primary groups play the most critical role in our lives. The primary group is usually fairly small and is made up of individuals who generally engage face-to-face in long-term, emotionally significant ways. These interactions occurring within the primary group and which serve emotional needs are called\u00a0<strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2881219\">expressive functions<\/span><\/strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2881219\">, which differ from merely\u00a0<\/span>pragmatic ones. The primary group is usually made up of significant others, those individuals who have the most impact on our socialization. The best example of a primary group is the family.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1483196\">Secondary groups are often larger and impersonal. They may also be task-focused and time-limited. These groups serve an <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id3227066\">instrumental function<\/span><\/strong> rather than an expressive one, meaning that their role is more goal- or task-oriented than emotional. One's fellow students or coworkers can be examples of a secondary group. Neither primary nor secondary groups are bound by strict definitions or set limits. In fact, people can move from one group to another. A graduate seminar, for example, can start as a secondary group focused on the class at hand, but as the students work together throughout their program, they may find common interests and strong ties that transform them into a more durable primary group.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Best Friends She\u2019s Never Met<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1816570\">Writer Allison Levy worked alone. While she liked the freedom and flexibility of working from home, she sometimes missed having a community of coworkers, both for the practical purpose of brainstorming and the more social \u201cwater cooler\u201d aspect. Levy did what many do in the Internet age: she found a group of other writers online through a web forum. Over time, a group of approximately twenty writers, who all wrote for a similar audience, broke off from the larger forum and started a private invitation-only forum. While writers in general represent all genders, ages, and interests, it ended up being a collection of twenty- and thirty-something women who comprised the new forum; they all wrote fiction for children and young adults.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1346172\">At first, the writers\u2019 forum was clearly a secondary group united by the members\u2019 professions and work situations. As Levy explained, \u201cOn the Internet, you can be present or absent as often as you want. No one is expecting you to show up.\u201d It was a useful place to research information about different publishers and about who had recently sold what and to track industry trends. But as time passed, Levy found it served a different purpose. Since the group shared other characteristics beyond their writing (such as age and gender), the online conversation naturally turned to matters such as child-rearing, aging parents, health, and exercise. Levy found it was a sympathetic place to talk about any number of subjects, not just writing. Further, when people didn\u2019t post for several days, others expressed concern, asking whether anyone had heard from the missing writers. It reached a point where most members would tell the group if they were traveling or needed to be offline for awhile.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2229374\">The group continued to share. One member on the site who was going through a difficult family illness wrote, \u201cI don\u2019t know where I\u2019d be without you women. It is so great to have a place to vent that I know isn\u2019t hurting anyone.\u201d Others shared similar sentiments.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1882747\">So is this a primary group? Most of these people have never met each other. They live in Hawaii, Australia, Minnesota, and across the world. They may never meet. Levy wrote recently to the group, saying, \u201cMost of my \u2018real-life\u2019 friends and even my husband don\u2019t really get the writing thing. I don\u2019t know what I\u2019d do without you.\u201d Despite the distance and the lack of physical contact, the group clearly provides an expressive function.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/ef31b069-0059-477d-ac32-38ef5b7c8a69\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/6ce0a200-ce39-408f-9aeb-35039a7ace91\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/01b2267e-f5a1-4f84-bbab-32f2c73ed0d3\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id2625270\">\r\n<h2>In-Groups and Out-Groups<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_5289\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"wp-image-5289 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/22051019\/34637672205_9be99d72ee_k-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"A Virginia license plate is shown that says &quot;Bos Sux&quot; with a New York Yankees decorative placeholder around it.\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. This driver and Yankees fan makes a clear statement about his or her in-group.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOne of the ways that groups can be powerful is through inclusion, and its inverse, exclusion. The feeling that we belong in an elite or select group is a heady one, while the feeling of not being allowed in, or of being in competition with a group, can be motivating in a different way. Sociologist William Sumner (1840\u20131910) developed the concepts of <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1720683\">in-group<\/span><\/strong> and <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id3094168\">out-group<\/span><\/strong> to explain this phenomenon (Sumner 1906). In short, an in-group is the group that an individual feels she belongs to, and which she believes to be an integral part of who she is. An out-group, conversely, is a group someone doesn\u2019t belong to. Often we may feel disdain or competition in relationship to an out-group. Sports teams, unions, and sororities are examples of in-groups and out-groups. People may belong to, or be an outsider to, any of these. Primary groups consist of both in-groups and out-groups, as do secondary groups.\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id3490432\">While group affiliations can be neutral or even positive, such as the case of a team-based sporting competition, the concept of in-groups and out-groups can also explain some negative human behavior, such as white supremacist movements like the Ku Klux Klan, or the bullying of gay or lesbian students. By defining others as \u201cnot like us\u201d and\/or inferior, in-groups can end up practicing ethnocentrism, racism, sexism, ageism, and heterosexism\u2014manners of judging others negatively based on their culture, race, sex, age, or sexuality. Often, in-groups can form within a secondary group. For instance, a workplace can have cliques of people, from senior executives who play golf together, to engineers who write code together, to young singles who socialize after hours. While these in-groups might show favoritism and affinity for other in-group members, the overall organization may be unable or unwilling to acknowledge it. Therefore, it pays to be wary of the politics of in-groups, since members may exclude others as a means of gaining status within the group.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/6ab19253-6aa6-41fc-a924-96e4e0febfdb\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>CyberBullying<\/h3>\r\nIn January of 2018, 12-year-old Gabriella Green (\"Gabby\") committed suicide by hanging in her home in Panama City, Florida. Two 12-year-old students were charged with cyberstalking once the investigation delved into her social media accounts and cell phone texts.\u00a0Cyberbullying is the use of interactive media by one person to torment another, and it is on the rise. Cyberbullying can mean sending threatening texts, harassing someone in a public forum (such as Facebook), hacking someone\u2019s account and pretending to be him or her, posting embarrassing images online, and so on.\u00a0Cyberbullying might have\u00a0<em>contributed to\u00a0<\/em>Gabby's suicide, and her case is among those that have led to nationwide conversations about the need for education, prevention, and effective responses to young people who are actively being cyberbullied.\r\n\r\nA study by the Cyberbullying Research Center found that 20 percent of middle school students admitted to \u201cseriously thinking about committing suicide\u201d as a result of online bullying (Hinduja and Patchin 2010). Whereas bullying face-to-face requires willingness to directly interact with your victim, cyberbullying allows bullies to harass others from the privacy of their homes without witnessing the damage firsthand. This form of bullying is particularly dangerous because it\u2019s widely accessible and therefore easier to accomplish.\r\n<p id=\"eip-255\">According to a report released in 2013 by the National Center for Educational Statistics, close to 1 in every 3 (27.8 percent) students report being bullied by their school peers. Seventeen percent of students reported being the victims of cyberbullying.<\/p>\r\nMeasuring cyberbullying and its targets is quite difficult. Researchers have shown the way the questions are asked can lead to gender-specific responses. For example, if a survey asks about \"rumor spreading or hurtful commenting behaviors,\" females are more likely to be involved, but if the survey asks about \"mistreatment in videos or via online gaming,\" males are more likely to be involved.\u00a0[footnote]Patchin, J. 2019. \"Cyberbullying victimization rates by race, sex, and age.\" Cyberbullying Research Center. <a href=\"https:\/\/cyberbullying.org\/cyberbullying-victimization-rates-2016\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/cyberbullying.org\/cyberbullying-victimization-rates-2016<\/a>[\/footnote] In a survey of 5,000 respondents, cyberbullying in the past 30 days occurred most to multiracial high school females, then middle school multiracial females, and white middle school females as number three (Patchin 2019). Groups least likely to be victims of cyberbullying were Asian middle school males, Black female high schoolers, and Asian female high schoolers.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_5288\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"593\"]<img class=\"wp-image-5288\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/22050526\/Bullying_Victimization_age-sex-race.jpg\" alt=\"A chart is shown titled, &quot;Cyberbullying Victimization Rate per 1,000 persons.&quot; It shows that multiracial high school females were bullied the most, at nearly 210, then multiracial middle school females at 186\/1,000, then white middle school females at 178.6, and then Black high school males and multiracial middle school males at 176.5. At the bottom of the chart are Asian middle school males at 69. \" width=\"593\" height=\"665\" \/> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. This chart shows the number of people from each group who reported cyberbullying.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nExamining this issue is an area ripe for sociological research and has clear policy implications. When we consider demographic variables like race\/ ethnicity, gender, and age, how does that help us understand this phenomenon? How does an understanding of groups reveal the behavior of the cyberbullies (who also report being more likely to commit suicide) and those who experience cyberbullying? Other than survey research, what other sociological research methods could be employed?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id3148470\">\r\n<h2>Reference Groups<\/h2>\r\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id3118448\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"350\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204241\/Figure_06_01_02.jpg.jpg\" alt=\"This is a picture of the U.S. Naval Academy's football team in their locker room.\" width=\"350\" height=\"455\" \/> <strong>Figure 2.<\/strong> Athletes are often viewed as a reference group for young people. (Photo courtesy of Johnny Bivera\/U.S. Navy\/Wikimedia Commons)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1389137\">A <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2784003\">reference group<\/span><\/strong> is a group that people compare themselves to\u2014it provides a standard of measurement. In U.S. society, peer groups are common reference groups. Kids and adults pay attention to what their peers wear, what music they like, what they do with their free time\u2014and they compare themselves to what they see. Most people have more than one reference group, so a middle school boy might look not just at his classmates but also at his older brother\u2019s friends and see a different set of norms. And he might observe the antics of his favorite athletes for yet another set of behaviors.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id3094292\">Some other examples of reference groups can be one\u2019s cultural center, workplace, family gathering, and even parents. Often, reference groups convey competing messages. For instance, on television and in movies, young adults often have wonderful apartments and cars and active social lives despite not holding a job. In music videos, young women might dance and sing in a sexually aggressive way that suggests experience beyond their years. At all ages, we use reference groups to help guide our behavior and show us social norms. So how important is it to surround yourself with positive reference groups? You may not recognize a reference group, but it still influences the way you act. Identifying your reference groups can help you understand the source of the social identities you aspire to or want to distance yourself from.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Types of Groups, Group Dynamics, and Leadership<\/h3>\r\nPlease watch this video to review the different types of groups and to preview what you will learn about on the next pages\u2014group dynamics and leadership.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/_wFZ5Dbj8DA\" width=\"800\" height=\"470\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>College: A World of In-Groups, Out-Groups, and Reference Groups<\/h3>\r\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id2971380\">f<strong>Figure 3.<\/strong> Which fraternity or sorority would you fit into, if any? Sorority recruitment day offers students an opportunity to learn about these different groups. (Photo courtesy of Murray State\/flickr)<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2815094\">For a student entering college, the sociological study of groups takes on an immediate and practical meaning. After all, when we arrive someplace new, most of us glance around to see how well we fit in or stand out in the ways we want. This is a natural response to a reference group, and on a large campus, there can be many competing groups. Say you are a strong athlete who wants to play intramural sports, and your favorite musicians are a local punk band. You may find yourself engaged with two very different reference groups.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2257117\">These reference groups can also become your in-groups or out-groups. For instance, different groups on campus might solicit you to join. Are there fraternities and sororities at your school? If so, chances are they will try to convince students\u2014that is, students they deem worthy\u2014to join them. And if you love playing soccer and want to play on a campus team, but you\u2019re wearing shredded jeans, combat boots, and a local band T-shirt, you might have a hard time convincing the soccer team to give you a chance. While most campus groups refrain from insulting competing groups, there is a definite sense of an in-group versus an out-group. \u201cThem?\u201d a member might say. \u201cThey\u2019re all right, but their parties are nowhere near as cool as ours.\u201d Or, \u201cOnly serious engineering geeks join that group.\u201d This immediate categorization into in-groups and out-groups means that students must choose carefully, since whatever group they associate with won\u2019t just define their friends\u2014it may also define their enemies.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id2808777\" class=\"further-research\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Further Research<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2701960\">For more information about cyberbullying causes and statistics, check out\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/cyberbullying.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">cyberbullying.org<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"eip-id1417918\" class=\"exercise\"><section>\r\n<div id=\"eip-id1723031\" class=\"problem\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Make a list of all of the different groups in your social world. Then label each group making sure you have at least one example of a primary group, secondary group, in-group, out-group, and a reference group. Now write the instrumental and expressive functions of each group next to the group. Finally, after looking at this list and the functions of each group, which are most important to you? Why?<\/li>\r\n \t<li id=\"import-auto-id1725669\">How has technology changed your primary groups and secondary groups? Do you have more (and separate) primary groups due to online connectivity? Do you believe that someone, like Levy, can have a true primary group made up of people she has never met? Why, or why not?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Groups can be formed based on exclusionary criteria and\/or can transform into an in-group with clearly defined out-groups. Street gangs and motorcycle clubs are extreme examples, but what about fraternities and sororities or sports rivalries (i.e. Yankees\/ Red Sox, Celtics\/ Lakers, Real Madrid\/ Barcelona, Duke\/ North Carolina)?\u00a0What are the instrumental and expressive functions of such in-group groups? What are the dysfunctions? How does this build upon Durkheim's theory of society based on social solidarity?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/b9f0fee3-88de-4166-8f8c-da5f85f62097\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/0830d51c-3398-4d82-b110-492d60f1bc70\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2679595\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>aggregate:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id3122281\">a collection of people who exist in the same place at the same time, but who don\u2019t interact or share a sense of identity<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2806275\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>category:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1491276\">people who share similar characteristics but who are not connected in any way<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2397075\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>expressive function:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1276777\">a group function that serves an emotional need<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1323178\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>group:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id3006241\">any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2274761\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>in-group:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1675129\">a group a person belongs to and feels is an integral part of their identity<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1919314\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>instrumental function:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1599079\">being oriented toward a task or goal<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1475602\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>out-group:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1496342\">a group that an individual is not a member of, and may even compete with<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1476816\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>primary groups:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1449947\">small, informal groups of people who are closest to us<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2243762\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>reference groups:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1764788\">groups to which an individual compares themselves<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2789136\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>secondary groups:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id2703603\">larger and more impersonal groups that are task-focused and time limited<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe the functions of a variety of groups (i.e. primary\/secondary, in-groups\/out-groups, and reference groups)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>Most of us feel comfortable using the word \u201cgroup\u201d without giving it much thought. In everyday use, it can be a generic term, although it carries important clinical and scientific meanings. Moreover, the concept of a group is central to much of how we think about society and human interaction. Often, we might mean different things by using that word. We might say that a group of kids all saw the dog, and it could mean 250 students in a lecture hall or four siblings playing on a front lawn. In everyday conversation, there isn\u2019t a clear distinguishing use. So how can we more precisely focus the meaning for sociological purposes?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-id2835017\">\n<h2>Defining a Group<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2854136\">The term <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1855855\">group<\/span><\/strong> is an amorphous one and can refer to a wide variety of gatherings, from just two people (think about a \u201cgroup project\u201d in school when you partnered with another student), a club, a regular gathering of friends, or people who work together or share a hobby. In short, the term refers to any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share a sense that their identity is somehow aligned with the group. Of course, every time people are gathered it is not necessarily a group. A rally is usually a one-time event, for instance, and belonging to a political party doesn\u2019t imply interaction with others. People who exist in the same place at the same time but who do not interact or share a sense of identity\u2014such as a bunch of people standing in line at Starbucks\u2014are considered an <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1164824\">aggregate<\/span><\/strong>, or a crowd. Another example of a nongroup is people who share similar characteristics but are not tied to one another in any way. These people are considered a <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2836177\">category<\/span><\/strong>, and as an example all children born from approximately 1980\u20132000 are referred to as \u201cMillennials.\u201d Why are Millennials a category and not a group? Because while some of them may share a sense of identity, they do not, as a whole, interact frequently with each other.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1353991\">Interestingly, people within an aggregate or category can become a group. During disasters, people in a neighborhood (an aggregate) who did not know each other might become friendly and depend on each other at the local shelter. After the disaster ends and the people go back to simply living near each other, the feeling of cohesiveness may last since they have all shared an experience. They might remain a group, practicing emergency readiness, coordinating supplies for next time, or taking turns caring for neighbors who need extra help. Similarly, there may be many groups within a single category. Consider teachers, for example. Within this category, groups may exist like teachers\u2019 unions, teachers who coach, or staff members who are involved with the PTA.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id2639486\">\n<h2>Types of Groups<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id3083699\">Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley (1864\u20131929) suggested that groups can broadly be divided into two categories: <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2715953\">primary groups<\/span><\/strong> and <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1556482\">secondary groups<\/span><\/strong> (Cooley 1909). According to Cooley, primary groups play the most critical role in our lives. The primary group is usually fairly small and is made up of individuals who generally engage face-to-face in long-term, emotionally significant ways. These interactions occurring within the primary group and which serve emotional needs are called\u00a0<strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2881219\">expressive functions<\/span><\/strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2881219\">, which differ from merely\u00a0<\/span>pragmatic ones. The primary group is usually made up of significant others, those individuals who have the most impact on our socialization. The best example of a primary group is the family.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1483196\">Secondary groups are often larger and impersonal. They may also be task-focused and time-limited. These groups serve an <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id3227066\">instrumental function<\/span><\/strong> rather than an expressive one, meaning that their role is more goal- or task-oriented than emotional. One&#8217;s fellow students or coworkers can be examples of a secondary group. Neither primary nor secondary groups are bound by strict definitions or set limits. In fact, people can move from one group to another. A graduate seminar, for example, can start as a secondary group focused on the class at hand, but as the students work together throughout their program, they may find common interests and strong ties that transform them into a more durable primary group.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Best Friends She\u2019s Never Met<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1816570\">Writer Allison Levy worked alone. While she liked the freedom and flexibility of working from home, she sometimes missed having a community of coworkers, both for the practical purpose of brainstorming and the more social \u201cwater cooler\u201d aspect. Levy did what many do in the Internet age: she found a group of other writers online through a web forum. Over time, a group of approximately twenty writers, who all wrote for a similar audience, broke off from the larger forum and started a private invitation-only forum. While writers in general represent all genders, ages, and interests, it ended up being a collection of twenty- and thirty-something women who comprised the new forum; they all wrote fiction for children and young adults.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1346172\">At first, the writers\u2019 forum was clearly a secondary group united by the members\u2019 professions and work situations. As Levy explained, \u201cOn the Internet, you can be present or absent as often as you want. No one is expecting you to show up.\u201d It was a useful place to research information about different publishers and about who had recently sold what and to track industry trends. But as time passed, Levy found it served a different purpose. Since the group shared other characteristics beyond their writing (such as age and gender), the online conversation naturally turned to matters such as child-rearing, aging parents, health, and exercise. Levy found it was a sympathetic place to talk about any number of subjects, not just writing. Further, when people didn\u2019t post for several days, others expressed concern, asking whether anyone had heard from the missing writers. It reached a point where most members would tell the group if they were traveling or needed to be offline for awhile.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2229374\">The group continued to share. One member on the site who was going through a difficult family illness wrote, \u201cI don\u2019t know where I\u2019d be without you women. It is so great to have a place to vent that I know isn\u2019t hurting anyone.\u201d Others shared similar sentiments.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1882747\">So is this a primary group? Most of these people have never met each other. They live in Hawaii, Australia, Minnesota, and across the world. They may never meet. Levy wrote recently to the group, saying, \u201cMost of my \u2018real-life\u2019 friends and even my husband don\u2019t really get the writing thing. I don\u2019t know what I\u2019d do without you.\u201d Despite the distance and the lack of physical contact, the group clearly provides an expressive function.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_ef31b069-0059-477d-ac32-38ef5b7c8a69\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/ef31b069-0059-477d-ac32-38ef5b7c8a69?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_ef31b069-0059-477d-ac32-38ef5b7c8a69\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_6ce0a200-ce39-408f-9aeb-35039a7ace91\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/6ce0a200-ce39-408f-9aeb-35039a7ace91?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_6ce0a200-ce39-408f-9aeb-35039a7ace91\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_01b2267e-f5a1-4f84-bbab-32f2c73ed0d3\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/01b2267e-f5a1-4f84-bbab-32f2c73ed0d3?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_01b2267e-f5a1-4f84-bbab-32f2c73ed0d3\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id2625270\">\n<h2>In-Groups and Out-Groups<\/h2>\n<div id=\"attachment_5289\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-5289\" class=\"wp-image-5289 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/22051019\/34637672205_9be99d72ee_k-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"A Virginia license plate is shown that says &quot;Bos Sux&quot; with a New York Yankees decorative placeholder around it.\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-5289\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. This driver and Yankees fan makes a clear statement about his or her in-group.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>One of the ways that groups can be powerful is through inclusion, and its inverse, exclusion. The feeling that we belong in an elite or select group is a heady one, while the feeling of not being allowed in, or of being in competition with a group, can be motivating in a different way. Sociologist William Sumner (1840\u20131910) developed the concepts of <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1720683\">in-group<\/span><\/strong> and <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id3094168\">out-group<\/span><\/strong> to explain this phenomenon (Sumner 1906). In short, an in-group is the group that an individual feels she belongs to, and which she believes to be an integral part of who she is. An out-group, conversely, is a group someone doesn\u2019t belong to. Often we may feel disdain or competition in relationship to an out-group. Sports teams, unions, and sororities are examples of in-groups and out-groups. People may belong to, or be an outsider to, any of these. Primary groups consist of both in-groups and out-groups, as do secondary groups.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id3490432\">While group affiliations can be neutral or even positive, such as the case of a team-based sporting competition, the concept of in-groups and out-groups can also explain some negative human behavior, such as white supremacist movements like the Ku Klux Klan, or the bullying of gay or lesbian students. By defining others as \u201cnot like us\u201d and\/or inferior, in-groups can end up practicing ethnocentrism, racism, sexism, ageism, and heterosexism\u2014manners of judging others negatively based on their culture, race, sex, age, or sexuality. Often, in-groups can form within a secondary group. For instance, a workplace can have cliques of people, from senior executives who play golf together, to engineers who write code together, to young singles who socialize after hours. While these in-groups might show favoritism and affinity for other in-group members, the overall organization may be unable or unwilling to acknowledge it. Therefore, it pays to be wary of the politics of in-groups, since members may exclude others as a means of gaining status within the group.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_6ab19253-6aa6-41fc-a924-96e4e0febfdb\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/6ab19253-6aa6-41fc-a924-96e4e0febfdb?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_6ab19253-6aa6-41fc-a924-96e4e0febfdb\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>CyberBullying<\/h3>\n<p>In January of 2018, 12-year-old Gabriella Green (&#8220;Gabby&#8221;) committed suicide by hanging in her home in Panama City, Florida. Two 12-year-old students were charged with cyberstalking once the investigation delved into her social media accounts and cell phone texts.\u00a0Cyberbullying is the use of interactive media by one person to torment another, and it is on the rise. Cyberbullying can mean sending threatening texts, harassing someone in a public forum (such as Facebook), hacking someone\u2019s account and pretending to be him or her, posting embarrassing images online, and so on.\u00a0Cyberbullying might have\u00a0<em>contributed to\u00a0<\/em>Gabby&#8217;s suicide, and her case is among those that have led to nationwide conversations about the need for education, prevention, and effective responses to young people who are actively being cyberbullied.<\/p>\n<p>A study by the Cyberbullying Research Center found that 20 percent of middle school students admitted to \u201cseriously thinking about committing suicide\u201d as a result of online bullying (Hinduja and Patchin 2010). Whereas bullying face-to-face requires willingness to directly interact with your victim, cyberbullying allows bullies to harass others from the privacy of their homes without witnessing the damage firsthand. This form of bullying is particularly dangerous because it\u2019s widely accessible and therefore easier to accomplish.<\/p>\n<p id=\"eip-255\">According to a report released in 2013 by the National Center for Educational Statistics, close to 1 in every 3 (27.8 percent) students report being bullied by their school peers. Seventeen percent of students reported being the victims of cyberbullying.<\/p>\n<p>Measuring cyberbullying and its targets is quite difficult. Researchers have shown the way the questions are asked can lead to gender-specific responses. For example, if a survey asks about &#8220;rumor spreading or hurtful commenting behaviors,&#8221; females are more likely to be involved, but if the survey asks about &#8220;mistreatment in videos or via online gaming,&#8221; males are more likely to be involved.\u00a0<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Patchin, J. 2019. &quot;Cyberbullying victimization rates by race, sex, and age.&quot; Cyberbullying Research Center. https:\/\/cyberbullying.org\/cyberbullying-victimization-rates-2016\" id=\"return-footnote-119-1\" href=\"#footnote-119-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> In a survey of 5,000 respondents, cyberbullying in the past 30 days occurred most to multiracial high school females, then middle school multiracial females, and white middle school females as number three (Patchin 2019). Groups least likely to be victims of cyberbullying were Asian middle school males, Black female high schoolers, and Asian female high schoolers.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_5288\" style=\"width: 603px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-5288\" class=\"wp-image-5288\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/22050526\/Bullying_Victimization_age-sex-race.jpg\" alt=\"A chart is shown titled, &quot;Cyberbullying Victimization Rate per 1,000 persons.&quot; It shows that multiracial high school females were bullied the most, at nearly 210, then multiracial middle school females at 186\/1,000, then white middle school females at 178.6, and then Black high school males and multiracial middle school males at 176.5. At the bottom of the chart are Asian middle school males at 69.\" width=\"593\" height=\"665\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-5288\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. This chart shows the number of people from each group who reported cyberbullying.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Examining this issue is an area ripe for sociological research and has clear policy implications. When we consider demographic variables like race\/ ethnicity, gender, and age, how does that help us understand this phenomenon? How does an understanding of groups reveal the behavior of the cyberbullies (who also report being more likely to commit suicide) and those who experience cyberbullying? Other than survey research, what other sociological research methods could be employed?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id3148470\">\n<h2>Reference Groups<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id3118448\">\n<div style=\"width: 360px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204241\/Figure_06_01_02.jpg.jpg\" alt=\"This is a picture of the U.S. Naval Academy's football team in their locker room.\" width=\"350\" height=\"455\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2.<\/strong> Athletes are often viewed as a reference group for young people. (Photo courtesy of Johnny Bivera\/U.S. Navy\/Wikimedia Commons)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1389137\">A <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2784003\">reference group<\/span><\/strong> is a group that people compare themselves to\u2014it provides a standard of measurement. In U.S. society, peer groups are common reference groups. Kids and adults pay attention to what their peers wear, what music they like, what they do with their free time\u2014and they compare themselves to what they see. Most people have more than one reference group, so a middle school boy might look not just at his classmates but also at his older brother\u2019s friends and see a different set of norms. And he might observe the antics of his favorite athletes for yet another set of behaviors.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id3094292\">Some other examples of reference groups can be one\u2019s cultural center, workplace, family gathering, and even parents. Often, reference groups convey competing messages. For instance, on television and in movies, young adults often have wonderful apartments and cars and active social lives despite not holding a job. In music videos, young women might dance and sing in a sexually aggressive way that suggests experience beyond their years. At all ages, we use reference groups to help guide our behavior and show us social norms. So how important is it to surround yourself with positive reference groups? You may not recognize a reference group, but it still influences the way you act. Identifying your reference groups can help you understand the source of the social identities you aspire to or want to distance yourself from.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Types of Groups, Group Dynamics, and Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Please watch this video to review the different types of groups and to preview what you will learn about on the next pages\u2014group dynamics and leadership.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/_wFZ5Dbj8DA\" width=\"800\" height=\"470\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>College: A World of In-Groups, Out-Groups, and Reference Groups<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id2971380\">f<strong>Figure 3.<\/strong> Which fraternity or sorority would you fit into, if any? Sorority recruitment day offers students an opportunity to learn about these different groups. (Photo courtesy of Murray State\/flickr)<\/figure>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2815094\">For a student entering college, the sociological study of groups takes on an immediate and practical meaning. After all, when we arrive someplace new, most of us glance around to see how well we fit in or stand out in the ways we want. This is a natural response to a reference group, and on a large campus, there can be many competing groups. Say you are a strong athlete who wants to play intramural sports, and your favorite musicians are a local punk band. You may find yourself engaged with two very different reference groups.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2257117\">These reference groups can also become your in-groups or out-groups. For instance, different groups on campus might solicit you to join. Are there fraternities and sororities at your school? If so, chances are they will try to convince students\u2014that is, students they deem worthy\u2014to join them. And if you love playing soccer and want to play on a campus team, but you\u2019re wearing shredded jeans, combat boots, and a local band T-shirt, you might have a hard time convincing the soccer team to give you a chance. While most campus groups refrain from insulting competing groups, there is a definite sense of an in-group versus an out-group. \u201cThem?\u201d a member might say. \u201cThey\u2019re all right, but their parties are nowhere near as cool as ours.\u201d Or, \u201cOnly serious engineering geeks join that group.\u201d This immediate categorization into in-groups and out-groups means that students must choose carefully, since whatever group they associate with won\u2019t just define their friends\u2014it may also define their enemies.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id2808777\" class=\"further-research\">\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Further Research<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2701960\">For more information about cyberbullying causes and statistics, check out\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/cyberbullying.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">cyberbullying.org<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<div id=\"eip-id1417918\" class=\"exercise\">\n<section>\n<div id=\"eip-id1723031\" class=\"problem\">\n<ul>\n<li>Make a list of all of the different groups in your social world. Then label each group making sure you have at least one example of a primary group, secondary group, in-group, out-group, and a reference group. Now write the instrumental and expressive functions of each group next to the group. Finally, after looking at this list and the functions of each group, which are most important to you? Why?<\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1725669\">How has technology changed your primary groups and secondary groups? Do you have more (and separate) primary groups due to online connectivity? Do you believe that someone, like Levy, can have a true primary group made up of people she has never met? Why, or why not?<\/li>\n<li>Groups can be formed based on exclusionary criteria and\/or can transform into an in-group with clearly defined out-groups. Street gangs and motorcycle clubs are extreme examples, but what about fraternities and sororities or sports rivalries (i.e. Yankees\/ Red Sox, Celtics\/ Lakers, Real Madrid\/ Barcelona, Duke\/ North Carolina)?\u00a0What are the instrumental and expressive functions of such in-group groups? What are the dysfunctions? How does this build upon Durkheim&#8217;s theory of society based on social solidarity?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_b9f0fee3-88de-4166-8f8c-da5f85f62097\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/b9f0fee3-88de-4166-8f8c-da5f85f62097?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_b9f0fee3-88de-4166-8f8c-da5f85f62097\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_0830d51c-3398-4d82-b110-492d60f1bc70\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/0830d51c-3398-4d82-b110-492d60f1bc70?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_0830d51c-3398-4d82-b110-492d60f1bc70\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2679595\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>aggregate:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id3122281\">a collection of people who exist in the same place at the same time, but who don\u2019t interact or share a sense of identity<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2806275\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>category:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1491276\">people who share similar characteristics but who are not connected in any way<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2397075\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>expressive function:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1276777\">a group function that serves an emotional need<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1323178\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>group:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id3006241\">any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2274761\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>in-group:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1675129\">a group a person belongs to and feels is an integral part of their identity<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1919314\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>instrumental function:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1599079\">being oriented toward a task or goal<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1475602\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>out-group:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1496342\">a group that an individual is not a member of, and may even compete with<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1476816\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>primary groups:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1449947\">small, informal groups of people who are closest to us<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2243762\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>reference groups:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1764788\">groups to which an individual compares themselves<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2789136\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>secondary groups:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id2703603\">larger and more impersonal groups that are task-focused and time limited<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-119\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sarah Hoiland for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Types of Groups. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax CNX. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@12.1:2VBD87h5\/6-1-Types-of-Groups\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@12.1:2VBD87h5\/6-1-Types-of-Groups<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49<\/li><li>Yankees fan license plate. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Eli Christman. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Flickr. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/gammaman\/34637672205\/\">https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/gammaman\/34637672205\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Social Groups: Crash Course Sociology #16. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: CrashCourse. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=_wFZ5Dbj8DA\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=_wFZ5Dbj8DA<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-119-1\">Patchin, J. 2019. \"Cyberbullying victimization rates by race, sex, and age.\" Cyberbullying Research Center. <a href=\"https:\/\/cyberbullying.org\/cyberbullying-victimization-rates-2016\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/cyberbullying.org\/cyberbullying-victimization-rates-2016<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-119-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":11,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Types of Groups\",\"author\":\"OpenStax CNX\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@12.1:2VBD87h5\/6-1-Types-of-Groups\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Yankees fan license plate\",\"author\":\"Eli Christman\",\"organization\":\"Flickr\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/gammaman\/34637672205\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Sarah Hoiland for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen 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