{"id":1207,"date":"2016-05-12T19:47:08","date_gmt":"2016-05-12T19:47:08","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontosociology-waymaker\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=1207"},"modified":"2024-04-25T14:47:09","modified_gmt":"2024-04-25T14:47:09","slug":"symbolic-interactionism-and-deviance","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/chapter\/symbolic-interactionism-and-deviance\/","title":{"raw":"Symbolic Interactionism and Deviance","rendered":"Symbolic Interactionism and Deviance"},"content":{"raw":"<figure><\/figure>\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033056797\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe and differentiate between symbolic interactionists' approach to deviance<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Symbolic Interactionism<\/h2>\r\nSymbolic interactionism is a theoretical approach that can be used to explain how societies and\/or social groups come to view behaviors as deviant or conventional. Labeling theory\u00a0and\u00a0differential association theory\u00a0fall within the realm of symbolic interactionism.\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033069296\">\r\n<h3>Labeling Theory<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2865647\">Although all of us violate norms from time to time, few people would consider themselves deviant. Those who do, however, have often been labeled \u201cdeviant\u201d by society and have gradually come to believe it themselves. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id3054668\">Labeling theory<\/span><\/strong> examines the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society. Thus, what is considered deviant is determined not so much by the behaviors themselves or the people who commit them, but by the reactions of others to these behaviors. As a result, what is considered deviant changes over time and can vary significantly across cultures.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nThis video explains labeling theory and gives an example of a cancer patient who is interested in using medical marijuana. Depending on where she lives, her behavior may be labeled as deviant. And depending on her experience, she may begin to think of herself differently after repeated deviance, resulting in secondary deviance or a change in her master status.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1281353&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=QHSvZZ1pnm0&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-zx6cc17r-QHSvZZ1pnm0\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nSociologist Edwin Lemert expanded on the concepts of labeling theory and identified two types of deviance that affect identity formation. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1038620\">Primary deviance<\/span><\/strong> is a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual\u2019s self-image or interactions with others. Speeding is a deviant act, but receiving a speeding ticket generally does not make others view you as a bad person, nor does it alter your own self-concept. Individuals who engage in primary deviance still maintain a feeling of belonging in society and are likely to continue to conform to norms in the future.\r\n\r\nSometimes, in more extreme cases, primary deviance can morph into secondary deviance. <strong>Secondary deviance<\/strong> occurs when a person\u2019s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society. The person may begin to take on and fulfill the role of a \u201cdeviant\u201d as an act of rebellion against the society that has labeled that individual as such. For example, consider a high school student who often cuts class and gets into fights. The student is reprimanded frequently by teachers and school staff, and soon enough, he develops a reputation as a \u201ctroublemaker.\u201d As a result, the student starts acting out even more and breaking more rules; he has adopted the \u201ctroublemaker\u201d label and embraced this deviant identity. Secondary deviance can be so strong that it bestows a <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1773248\">master status<\/span><\/strong> on an individual. A master status is a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual. Some people see themselves primarily as doctors, artists, or grandfathers. Others see themselves as beggars, convicts, or addicts.\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">Techniques of Neutralization<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm530883488\" class=\" \">How do people deal with the labels they are given? This was the subject of a study done by Sykes and Matza (1957). They studied teenage boys who had been labeled as juvenile delinquents to see how they either embraced or denied these labels. Have you ever used any of these techniques?<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm251689632\" class=\" \">Let\u2019s take a scenario and apply all five techniques to explain how they are used. A young person is working for a retail store as a cashier. Their cash drawer has been coming up short for a few days. When the boss confronts the employee, they are labeled as a thief for the suspicion of stealing. How does the employee deal with this label?<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm246017920\" class=\" \">The Denial of Responsibility: When someone doesn\u2019t take responsibility for their actions or blames others. They may use this technique and say that it was their boss\u2019s fault because they don\u2019t get paid enough to make rent or because they\u2019re getting a divorce. They are rejecting the label by denying responsibility for the action.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm247246800\" class=\" \">The Denial of Injury: Sometimes people will look at a situation in terms of what effect it has on others. If the employee uses this technique they may say, \u201cWhat\u2019s the big deal? Nobody got hurt. Your insurance will take care of it.\u201d The person doesn\u2019t see their actions as a big deal because nobody \u201cgot hurt.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm245207136\" class=\" \">The Denial of the Victim: If there is no victim there\u2019s no crime. In this technique the person sees their actions as justified or that the victim deserved it. Our employee may look at their situation and say, \u201cI\u2019ve worked here for years without a raise. I was owed that money and if you won\u2019t give it to me I\u2019ll get it my own way.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm255599488\" class=\" \">The Condemnation of the Condemners: The employee might \u201cturn it around on\u201d the boss by blaming them. They may say something like, \u201cYou don\u2019t know my life, you have no reason to judge me.\u201d This is taking the focus off of their actions and putting the onus on the accuser to, essentially, prove the person is living up to the label, which also shifts the narrative away from the deviant behavior.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm246438944\" class=\" \">Appeal to a Higher Authority: The final technique that may be used is to claim that the actions were for a higher purpose. The employee may tell the boss that they stole the money because their mom is sick and needs medicine or something like that. They are justifying their actions by making it seem as though the purpose for the behavior is a greater \u201cgood\u201d than the action is \u201cbad.\u201d (Sykes &amp; Matza, 1957)<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/db61d8a3-21f7-4c9d-993c-5b399754b86b\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/23dafc56-0dfb-4726-b7a1-3a1e2841ac17\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section>\r\n<h2 class=\"title editable block\">Differential Association Theory<\/h2>\r\nOne core premise of culture and socialization is that individuals\u00a0<em>learn\u00a0<\/em>the values and norms of a given culture and that this learning process is lifelong. This is particularly helpful when we think about deviance because differential association theorists apply this core premise to deviance.\u00a0How many of you have committed a deviant act with someone else? A sibling? A friend? Consider something like underage drinking, which often occurs with peers and\/or with older siblings. By the time many students arrive on college campuses (still underage), underage drinking has become normalized so that is seems \"everyone\" is doing it.\r\n\r\nIn criminology, <strong>differential association<\/strong> is a theory developed by Edwin Sutherland (1883\u20131950) proposing that through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior. Differential association theory is the most talked-about of the learning theories of deviance. This theory focuses on\u00a0<em>how\u00a0<\/em>individuals learn to become criminals, but it does not concern itself with\u00a0<em>why\u00a0<\/em>they become criminals.\r\n\r\nDifferential association predicts that an individual will choose the criminal path when the balance of definitions for law-breaking exceeds those for law-abiding. This tendency will be reinforced if social association provides active people in the person\u2019s life. The earlier in life an individual comes under the influence high status people within a group, the more likely the individual is to follow in their footsteps. This does not deny that there may be practical motives for crime. If a person is hungry but has no money, there is a temptation to steal. But the use of \u201cneeds\u201d and \u201cvalues\u201d is equivocal. To some extent, both non-criminal and criminal individuals are motivated by the need for money and social gain.\r\n<h3>Sutherland\u2019s Nine Points<\/h3>\r\nThe principles of Sutherland\u2019s theory of differential association can be summarized into nine key points.\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Criminal behavior is learned.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes techniques of committing the crime (which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes simple) and the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of the law.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those needs and values, since non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_5476\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"wp-image-5476 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/05\/19133812\/720px-Criminal_Silhouette_L.svg_-300x250.png\" alt=\"a criminal silhouette icon\" width=\"300\" height=\"250\" \/> <strong>Figure 1.<\/strong> Differential association theory predicts that an individual will choose the criminal path when the balance of definitions for law-breaking exceeds those for law-abiding.[\/caption]<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nAn important quality of differential association theory is the frequency and intensity of interaction. The amount of time that a person is exposed to a particular definition and at what point the interaction began are both crucial for explaining criminal activity. The process of learning criminal behavior is really not any different from the process involved in learning any other type of behavior. Sutherland maintains that there is no unique learning process associated with acquiring non-normative ways of behaving.\r\n\r\nOne very unique aspect of this theory is that it works to explain more than just juvenile delinquency and crime committed by lower class individuals. Since crime is understood to be learned behavior, the theory is also applicable to white-collar, corporate, and organized crime.\r\n\r\nOne critique leveled against differential association stems from the idea that people can be independent, rational actors and individually motivated. This notion of one being a criminal based on his or her environment is problematic\u2014the theory does not take into account personality traits that might affect a person\u2019s susceptibility to these environmental influences.\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033056797\"><section id=\"fs-id1169033069296\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>The Right to Vote<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"225\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204305\/Figure_07_02_04a.jpg\" alt=\"A woman is shown voting at a voting booth.\" width=\"225\" height=\"675\" \/> <strong>Figure 2.\u00a0<\/strong>Should a former felony conviction permanently strip a U.S. citizen of the right to vote? (Photo courtesy of Joshin Yamada\/flickr.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2754738\">Before she lost her job as an administrative assistant, Leola Strickland postdated and mailed a handful of checks for amounts ranging from $90 to $500. By the time she was able to find a new job, the checks had bounced, and she was convicted of fraud under Mississippi law. Strickland pleaded guilty to a felony charge and repaid her debts; in return, she was spared from serving prison time.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3902\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"455\"]<img class=\"wp-image-3902\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/05\/10144941\/Screen-Shot-2018-09-10-at-9.49.12-AM.png\" alt=\" Cartogram showing mishapen states to show the disproportionate number of persons disenfranchised in each state. The Southern States of Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, and Florida are exceptionally large with rates between 2 to 10%. The Northern states such as Washington, Montana, North Dakota, Minnesota, and Wisconsin are shown to have lower rates between &lt;0.5% to 1.9%.\" width=\"455\" height=\"328\" \/> <strong>Figure 3. Cartogram of Total Disenfranchisement Rates by State, 2016. <\/strong>This Cartogram adjusts the size of the state to represent the number of persons disenfranchised in each state. You can see the the southeastern states have disproportionately high numbers of disenfranchised voters. Image from\u00a0 \"6 million lost voters\", https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1461812\">Strickland appeared in court in 2001. More than ten years later, she is still feeling the sting of her sentencing. Why? Because Mississippi is one of twelve states in the United States that bans convicted felons from voting (ProCon 2011).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2388714\">To Strickland, who said she had always voted, the news came as a great shock. She isn\u2019t alone. As of 2016, an estimated 6.1 million people are disenfranchised due to a felony conviction which equates to approximately 2.5 percent of the total U.S. voting age population or 1 in every 40 adults [footnote]Uggen, C. Larson, R. and S. Shannon. (2016). 6 million lost voters. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/<\/a>[\/footnote]\u00a0These individuals include inmates, parolees, probationers, and even people who have never been jailed, such as Leola Strickland.<\/p>\r\nWhile 1 in 40 voting age adults is disenfranchised, when we begin to break it down by racial and ethnic groups the picture becomes much more stark, as 1 in 13 African Americans are disenfranchised. Since felon disenfranchisement is a state-by-state law, African American disenfranchisement rates in Florida, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia now exceed 20 percent of the adult voting age population (Uggen, Larson, &amp; Shannon 2016).\r\n\r\n6 Million Lost Voters: State-Level Estimates of Felony Disenfranchisement, 2016 Christopher Uggen, Ryan Larson, and Sarah Shannon October 2016\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3903\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"643\"]<img class=\"wp-image-3903\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/05\/10145015\/Screen-Shot-2018-09-10-at-9.49.56-AM.png\" alt=\"Map of U.S. showing number of disenfranchised African-Americans, shown as a percentage in each state. The southeastern states of Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and Florida have the most, with 20% + of the population. The northeastern states Maine, Vermont, and Illinois have lower rates of about 0% to 1.9%.\" width=\"643\" height=\"425\" \/> <strong>Figure 4.<\/strong> <strong>African American Felony Disenfranchisement Rates, 2016.<\/strong>\u00a0African American disenfranchisement numbers are high in many states, but in Florida, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia, over 20% of the African American voting population is disenfranchised.\u00a0Image from\u00a0 \"6 million lost voters\", https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWith two 21st century elections (2000 and 2016) in which the candidate with the most votes did not win (Al Gore in 2000 and Hillary Clinton in 2016), one of which led to an official recount (2000 Election), there has been increased pressure for states with prohibitive voting measures to examine them. Particularly in the State of Florida, a swing state, in which nearly 1.5 million individuals are currently disenfranchised post-sentence (Uggen, Larson &amp; Shannon 2016). On January 23, 2018 Floridians for a Fair Democracy garnered 766,200 signatures to get an amendment on the 2018 ballot that would give the ability to vote back to Floridians with felony convictions that have completed their sentences. To see what happened track the results at the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.brennancenter.org\/our-work\/research-reports\/voting-rights-restoration-efforts-florida\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Brennan Center for Justice<\/a>, which includes state by state updates on disenfranchisement.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-id1169033138816\" class=\"section-summary\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nWatch the selected clip from this video to review the main theories held by symbolic interactionists to explain deviance.\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/06IS_X7hWWI?start=280&amp;end=429&amp;autoplay=0\" width=\"800\" height=\"470\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/2f63e6db-9176-4b6e-9c8d-d0a86c00dd3f\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id3592067\" class=\"exercise\"><section>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1188650\" class=\"problem\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Is it fair to deny citizens the right to vote? What factors are important? Should this be a federal issue or a state issue? Using your sociological imagination, what other states' rights issues have become federal or constitutional issues and why?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1169033060913\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>differential association theory:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1169033113477\">a theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1169033140201\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>labeling theory:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1169033115809\">the idea that the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society affects how a person self-identifies and behaves; related to self-fulfilling prophecy<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1169033113822\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>master status:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1169033115819\">a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1169033068944\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>primary deviance:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1169033115840\">a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual\u2019s self-image or interactions with others<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1169033121208\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>secondary deviance:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1169033115851\">deviance that occurs when a person\u2019s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<figure><\/figure>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033056797\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe and differentiate between symbolic interactionists&#8217; approach to deviance<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Symbolic Interactionism<\/h2>\n<p>Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical approach that can be used to explain how societies and\/or social groups come to view behaviors as deviant or conventional. Labeling theory\u00a0and\u00a0differential association theory\u00a0fall within the realm of symbolic interactionism.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033069296\">\n<h3>Labeling Theory<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2865647\">Although all of us violate norms from time to time, few people would consider themselves deviant. Those who do, however, have often been labeled \u201cdeviant\u201d by society and have gradually come to believe it themselves. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id3054668\">Labeling theory<\/span><\/strong> examines the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society. Thus, what is considered deviant is determined not so much by the behaviors themselves or the people who commit them, but by the reactions of others to these behaviors. As a result, what is considered deviant changes over time and can vary significantly across cultures.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>This video explains labeling theory and gives an example of a cancer patient who is interested in using medical marijuana. Depending on where she lives, her behavior may be labeled as deviant. And depending on her experience, she may begin to think of herself differently after repeated deviance, resulting in secondary deviance or a change in her master status.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1281353&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=QHSvZZ1pnm0&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-zx6cc17r-QHSvZZ1pnm0\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Sociologist Edwin Lemert expanded on the concepts of labeling theory and identified two types of deviance that affect identity formation. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1038620\">Primary deviance<\/span><\/strong> is a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual\u2019s self-image or interactions with others. Speeding is a deviant act, but receiving a speeding ticket generally does not make others view you as a bad person, nor does it alter your own self-concept. Individuals who engage in primary deviance still maintain a feeling of belonging in society and are likely to continue to conform to norms in the future.<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes, in more extreme cases, primary deviance can morph into secondary deviance. <strong>Secondary deviance<\/strong> occurs when a person\u2019s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society. The person may begin to take on and fulfill the role of a \u201cdeviant\u201d as an act of rebellion against the society that has labeled that individual as such. For example, consider a high school student who often cuts class and gets into fights. The student is reprimanded frequently by teachers and school staff, and soon enough, he develops a reputation as a \u201ctroublemaker.\u201d As a result, the student starts acting out even more and breaking more rules; he has adopted the \u201ctroublemaker\u201d label and embraced this deviant identity. Secondary deviance can be so strong that it bestows a <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1773248\">master status<\/span><\/strong> on an individual. A master status is a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual. Some people see themselves primarily as doctors, artists, or grandfathers. Others see themselves as beggars, convicts, or addicts.<\/p>\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">Techniques of Neutralization<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm530883488\" class=\"\">How do people deal with the labels they are given? This was the subject of a study done by Sykes and Matza (1957). They studied teenage boys who had been labeled as juvenile delinquents to see how they either embraced or denied these labels. Have you ever used any of these techniques?<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm251689632\" class=\"\">Let\u2019s take a scenario and apply all five techniques to explain how they are used. A young person is working for a retail store as a cashier. Their cash drawer has been coming up short for a few days. When the boss confronts the employee, they are labeled as a thief for the suspicion of stealing. How does the employee deal with this label?<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm246017920\" class=\"\">The Denial of Responsibility: When someone doesn\u2019t take responsibility for their actions or blames others. They may use this technique and say that it was their boss\u2019s fault because they don\u2019t get paid enough to make rent or because they\u2019re getting a divorce. They are rejecting the label by denying responsibility for the action.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm247246800\" class=\"\">The Denial of Injury: Sometimes people will look at a situation in terms of what effect it has on others. If the employee uses this technique they may say, \u201cWhat\u2019s the big deal? Nobody got hurt. Your insurance will take care of it.\u201d The person doesn\u2019t see their actions as a big deal because nobody \u201cgot hurt.\u201d<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm245207136\" class=\"\">The Denial of the Victim: If there is no victim there\u2019s no crime. In this technique the person sees their actions as justified or that the victim deserved it. Our employee may look at their situation and say, \u201cI\u2019ve worked here for years without a raise. I was owed that money and if you won\u2019t give it to me I\u2019ll get it my own way.\u201d<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm255599488\" class=\"\">The Condemnation of the Condemners: The employee might \u201cturn it around on\u201d the boss by blaming them. They may say something like, \u201cYou don\u2019t know my life, you have no reason to judge me.\u201d This is taking the focus off of their actions and putting the onus on the accuser to, essentially, prove the person is living up to the label, which also shifts the narrative away from the deviant behavior.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm246438944\" class=\"\">Appeal to a Higher Authority: The final technique that may be used is to claim that the actions were for a higher purpose. The employee may tell the boss that they stole the money because their mom is sick and needs medicine or something like that. They are justifying their actions by making it seem as though the purpose for the behavior is a greater \u201cgood\u201d than the action is \u201cbad.\u201d (Sykes &amp; Matza, 1957)<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_db61d8a3-21f7-4c9d-993c-5b399754b86b\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/db61d8a3-21f7-4c9d-993c-5b399754b86b?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_db61d8a3-21f7-4c9d-993c-5b399754b86b\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_23dafc56-0dfb-4726-b7a1-3a1e2841ac17\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/23dafc56-0dfb-4726-b7a1-3a1e2841ac17?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_23dafc56-0dfb-4726-b7a1-3a1e2841ac17\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<h2 class=\"title editable block\">Differential Association Theory<\/h2>\n<p>One core premise of culture and socialization is that individuals\u00a0<em>learn\u00a0<\/em>the values and norms of a given culture and that this learning process is lifelong. This is particularly helpful when we think about deviance because differential association theorists apply this core premise to deviance.\u00a0How many of you have committed a deviant act with someone else? A sibling? A friend? Consider something like underage drinking, which often occurs with peers and\/or with older siblings. By the time many students arrive on college campuses (still underage), underage drinking has become normalized so that is seems &#8220;everyone&#8221; is doing it.<\/p>\n<p>In criminology, <strong>differential association<\/strong> is a theory developed by Edwin Sutherland (1883\u20131950) proposing that through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior. Differential association theory is the most talked-about of the learning theories of deviance. This theory focuses on\u00a0<em>how\u00a0<\/em>individuals learn to become criminals, but it does not concern itself with\u00a0<em>why\u00a0<\/em>they become criminals.<\/p>\n<p>Differential association predicts that an individual will choose the criminal path when the balance of definitions for law-breaking exceeds those for law-abiding. This tendency will be reinforced if social association provides active people in the person\u2019s life. The earlier in life an individual comes under the influence high status people within a group, the more likely the individual is to follow in their footsteps. This does not deny that there may be practical motives for crime. If a person is hungry but has no money, there is a temptation to steal. But the use of \u201cneeds\u201d and \u201cvalues\u201d is equivocal. To some extent, both non-criminal and criminal individuals are motivated by the need for money and social gain.<\/p>\n<h3>Sutherland\u2019s Nine Points<\/h3>\n<p>The principles of Sutherland\u2019s theory of differential association can be summarized into nine key points.<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Criminal behavior is learned.<\/li>\n<li>Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication.<\/li>\n<li>The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups.<\/li>\n<li>When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes techniques of committing the crime (which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes simple) and the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes.<\/li>\n<li>The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable.<\/li>\n<li>A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of the law.<\/li>\n<li>Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.<\/li>\n<li>The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning.<\/li>\n<li>While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those needs and values, since non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values.\n<div id=\"attachment_5476\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-5476\" class=\"wp-image-5476 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/05\/19133812\/720px-Criminal_Silhouette_L.svg_-300x250.png\" alt=\"a criminal silhouette icon\" width=\"300\" height=\"250\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-5476\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1.<\/strong> Differential association theory predicts that an individual will choose the criminal path when the balance of definitions for law-breaking exceeds those for law-abiding.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>An important quality of differential association theory is the frequency and intensity of interaction. The amount of time that a person is exposed to a particular definition and at what point the interaction began are both crucial for explaining criminal activity. The process of learning criminal behavior is really not any different from the process involved in learning any other type of behavior. Sutherland maintains that there is no unique learning process associated with acquiring non-normative ways of behaving.<\/p>\n<p>One very unique aspect of this theory is that it works to explain more than just juvenile delinquency and crime committed by lower class individuals. Since crime is understood to be learned behavior, the theory is also applicable to white-collar, corporate, and organized crime.<\/p>\n<p>One critique leveled against differential association stems from the idea that people can be independent, rational actors and individually motivated. This notion of one being a criminal based on his or her environment is problematic\u2014the theory does not take into account personality traits that might affect a person\u2019s susceptibility to these environmental influences.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033056797\">\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033069296\">\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>The Right to Vote<\/h3>\n<div style=\"width: 235px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204305\/Figure_07_02_04a.jpg\" alt=\"A woman is shown voting at a voting booth.\" width=\"225\" height=\"675\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2.\u00a0<\/strong>Should a former felony conviction permanently strip a U.S. citizen of the right to vote? (Photo courtesy of Joshin Yamada\/flickr.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2754738\">Before she lost her job as an administrative assistant, Leola Strickland postdated and mailed a handful of checks for amounts ranging from $90 to $500. By the time she was able to find a new job, the checks had bounced, and she was convicted of fraud under Mississippi law. Strickland pleaded guilty to a felony charge and repaid her debts; in return, she was spared from serving prison time.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_3902\" style=\"width: 465px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3902\" class=\"wp-image-3902\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/05\/10144941\/Screen-Shot-2018-09-10-at-9.49.12-AM.png\" alt=\"Cartogram showing mishapen states to show the disproportionate number of persons disenfranchised in each state. The Southern States of Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, and Florida are exceptionally large with rates between 2 to 10%. The Northern states such as Washington, Montana, North Dakota, Minnesota, and Wisconsin are shown to have lower rates between &lt;0.5% to 1.9%.\" width=\"455\" height=\"328\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-3902\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3. Cartogram of Total Disenfranchisement Rates by State, 2016. <\/strong>This Cartogram adjusts the size of the state to represent the number of persons disenfranchised in each state. You can see the the southeastern states have disproportionately high numbers of disenfranchised voters. Image from\u00a0 &#8220;6 million lost voters&#8221;, https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1461812\">Strickland appeared in court in 2001. More than ten years later, she is still feeling the sting of her sentencing. Why? Because Mississippi is one of twelve states in the United States that bans convicted felons from voting (ProCon 2011).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2388714\">To Strickland, who said she had always voted, the news came as a great shock. She isn\u2019t alone. As of 2016, an estimated 6.1 million people are disenfranchised due to a felony conviction which equates to approximately 2.5 percent of the total U.S. voting age population or 1 in every 40 adults <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Uggen, C. Larson, R. and S. Shannon. (2016). 6 million lost voters. https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/\" id=\"return-footnote-1207-1\" href=\"#footnote-1207-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0These individuals include inmates, parolees, probationers, and even people who have never been jailed, such as Leola Strickland.<\/p>\n<p>While 1 in 40 voting age adults is disenfranchised, when we begin to break it down by racial and ethnic groups the picture becomes much more stark, as 1 in 13 African Americans are disenfranchised. Since felon disenfranchisement is a state-by-state law, African American disenfranchisement rates in Florida, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia now exceed 20 percent of the adult voting age population (Uggen, Larson, &amp; Shannon 2016).<\/p>\n<p>6 Million Lost Voters: State-Level Estimates of Felony Disenfranchisement, 2016 Christopher Uggen, Ryan Larson, and Sarah Shannon October 2016<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_3903\" style=\"width: 653px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3903\" class=\"wp-image-3903\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/05\/10145015\/Screen-Shot-2018-09-10-at-9.49.56-AM.png\" alt=\"Map of U.S. showing number of disenfranchised African-Americans, shown as a percentage in each state. The southeastern states of Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and Florida have the most, with 20% + of the population. The northeastern states Maine, Vermont, and Illinois have lower rates of about 0% to 1.9%.\" width=\"643\" height=\"425\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-3903\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 4.<\/strong> <strong>African American Felony Disenfranchisement Rates, 2016.<\/strong>\u00a0African American disenfranchisement numbers are high in many states, but in Florida, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia, over 20% of the African American voting population is disenfranchised.\u00a0Image from\u00a0 &#8220;6 million lost voters&#8221;, https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>With two 21st century elections (2000 and 2016) in which the candidate with the most votes did not win (Al Gore in 2000 and Hillary Clinton in 2016), one of which led to an official recount (2000 Election), there has been increased pressure for states with prohibitive voting measures to examine them. Particularly in the State of Florida, a swing state, in which nearly 1.5 million individuals are currently disenfranchised post-sentence (Uggen, Larson &amp; Shannon 2016). On January 23, 2018 Floridians for a Fair Democracy garnered 766,200 signatures to get an amendment on the 2018 ballot that would give the ability to vote back to Floridians with felony convictions that have completed their sentences. To see what happened track the results at the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.brennancenter.org\/our-work\/research-reports\/voting-rights-restoration-efforts-florida\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Brennan Center for Justice<\/a>, which includes state by state updates on disenfranchisement.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033138816\" class=\"section-summary\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Watch the selected clip from this video to review the main theories held by symbolic interactionists to explain deviance.<br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/06IS_X7hWWI?start=280&amp;end=429&amp;autoplay=0\" width=\"800\" height=\"470\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_2f63e6db-9176-4b6e-9c8d-d0a86c00dd3f\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/2f63e6db-9176-4b6e-9c8d-d0a86c00dd3f?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_2f63e6db-9176-4b6e-9c8d-d0a86c00dd3f\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<div id=\"fs-id3592067\" class=\"exercise\">\n<section>\n<div id=\"fs-id1188650\" class=\"problem\">\n<ul>\n<li>Is it fair to deny citizens the right to vote? What factors are important? Should this be a federal issue or a state issue? Using your sociological imagination, what other states&#8217; rights issues have become federal or constitutional issues and why?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1169033060913\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>differential association theory:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1169033113477\">a theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1169033140201\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>labeling theory:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1169033115809\">the idea that the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society affects how a person self-identifies and behaves; related to self-fulfilling prophecy<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1169033113822\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>master status:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1169033115819\">a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1169033068944\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>primary deviance:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1169033115840\">a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual\u2019s self-image or interactions with others<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1169033121208\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>secondary deviance:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1169033115851\">deviance that occurs when a person\u2019s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-1207\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Theory &amp; Deviance: Crash Course Sociology #19. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: CrashCourse. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=06IS_X7hWWI&#038;index=20&#038;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMJ-AfB_7J1538YKWkZAnGA\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=06IS_X7hWWI&#038;index=20&#038;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMJ-AfB_7J1538YKWkZAnGA<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax CNX. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:OY7OWJCz@6\/Theoretical-Perspectives-on-Deviance\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:OY7OWJCz@6\/Theoretical-Perspectives-on-Deviance<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49<\/li><li>Criminal Silhouette. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikimedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Criminal_Silhouette_L.svg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Criminal_Silhouette_L.svg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance and Crime. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/introduction-sociology-3e\/pages\/7-2-theoretical-perspectives-on-deviance-and-crime\">https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/introduction-sociology-3e\/pages\/7-2-theoretical-perspectives-on-deviance-and-crime<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Sociology 3e. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/introduction-sociology-3e\/pages\/7-2-theoretical-perspectives-on-deviance-and-crime<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>labeling theory video. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sociology Live!. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=QHSvZZ1pnm0\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=QHSvZZ1pnm0<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>6 million lost voters images. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Uggen, C. Larson, R. and S. Shannon. (2016). . <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\">https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: The Sentencing Project. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>All Rights Reserved<\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-1207-1\">Uggen, C. Larson, R. and S. Shannon. (2016). 6 million lost voters. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-1207-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":7,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance\",\"author\":\"OpenStax CNX\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:OY7OWJCz@6\/Theoretical-Perspectives-on-Deviance\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"labeling theory video\",\"author\":\"Sociology Live!\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=QHSvZZ1pnm0\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Theory & Deviance: Crash Course Sociology #19\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"CrashCourse\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=06IS_X7hWWI&index=20&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMJ-AfB_7J1538YKWkZAnGA\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"6 million lost voters images\",\"author\":\"Uggen, C. Larson, R. and S. Shannon. (2016). \",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\",\"project\":\"The Sentencing Project\",\"license\":\"arr\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Criminal Silhouette\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikimedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Criminal_Silhouette_L.svg\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc0\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance and Crime\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/introduction-sociology-3e\/pages\/7-2-theoretical-perspectives-on-deviance-and-crime\",\"project\":\"Sociology 3e\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/introduction-sociology-3e\/pages\/7-2-theoretical-perspectives-on-deviance-and-crime\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"9a87802b-693a-4956-b35e-134b877d26ee, 59667032-7fd9-4bf1-ad06-752cdcc18fbe","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1207","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":577,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1207","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":57,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1207\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9465,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1207\/revisions\/9465"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/577"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1207\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1207"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1207"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1207"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1207"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}