{"id":1783,"date":"2016-06-14T15:40:16","date_gmt":"2016-06-14T15:40:16","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontosociology-waymaker\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=1783"},"modified":"2024-04-25T16:43:23","modified_gmt":"2024-04-25T16:43:23","slug":"poverty-and-unemployment-in-the-united-states","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/chapter\/poverty-and-unemployment-in-the-united-states\/","title":{"raw":"Poverty and Unemployment in the United States","rendered":"Poverty and Unemployment in the United States"},"content":{"raw":"<figure><\/figure>\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1847908\"><\/section><section id=\"eip-id1286030\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Describe the relationship between poverty, work, and unemployment<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Poverty in the United States<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1814198\">When people lose their jobs during a recession or in a changing job market, it takes longer to find a new one, if they can find one at all.\u00a0 Also, according to (Hicks 2013), those with higher human capital, or years of education, have a much more difficult time finding work. When people do find a job,\u00a0it is often at a much lower wage or not full time. This can force people into poverty. In the United States, we tend to have what is called relative poverty, defined as being unable to live the lifestyle of the average person in your country. This must be contrasted with the extreme poverty that is frequently found in underdeveloped countries and defined as the inability, or near-inability, to afford basic necessities such as food (Byrns 2011). (You can review more about poverty and differences in terminology in the module on inequality.)\u00a0 [footnote]Hicks, M. J. (2013). Notes On: Labor Markets After the Great Recession: Unemployment and Policy for Indiana. Labor Law Journal, 64(2), 103\u2013113. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/search.ebscohost.com\/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=bth&amp;AN=88045408&amp;site=ehost-live\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/search.ebscohost.com\/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=bth&amp;AN=88045408&amp;site=ehost-live<\/a>[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/015e6d34-9e48-49c4-b2ed-d96459ccb587\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>The Historical U.S. Unemployment Rate<\/h2>\r\nExamining unemployment can help us better understand poverty in the United States. Let's look at what the unemployment rate is really telling us. The <strong>unemployment rate<\/strong> is not the percentage of the total adult population without jobs, but rather the percentage of adults who are in the labor force but who do not have jobs. Even with the \u201cout of the labor force\u201d category, there are still some people that are mislabeled in the categorization of employed, unemployed, or out of the labor force. There are some people who have only part time or temporary jobs and who are looking for full time and permanent employment that are counted as employed, though they are not employed in the way they would like or need to be. Additionally, there are individuals who are <strong>underemployed<\/strong>. This includes those that are trained or skilled for one type or level of work who are working in a lower paying job or one that does not utilize their skills. For example, an individual with a college degree in finance who is working as a sales clerk would be conside<span style=\"color: #333333;\">red underemployed. They are, however, also counted in the employed group. All of these individuals fall under the umbrella of the term \u201chidden unemployment.\u201d <\/span><strong>Discouraged workers<\/strong>, those who have stopped looking for employment and, hence, are no longer counted in the unemployed also fall into this group.\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Let's look at how unemployment rates have changed over time and how various groups of people are affected by unemployment differently. Figure 1 shows the historical pattern of U.S. unemployment since 1948.\u00a0While it clearly fluctuates over time, the unemployment rate seems to return to a range of 4% to 6%. There does not seem to be a long-term trend toward<\/span> the rate moving generally higher or generally lower.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_10270\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"717\"]<img class=\"wp-image-10270 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2043\/2015\/05\/25105757\/Screen-Shot-2018-04-25-at-5.57.27-AM.png\" alt=\"The line graph reveals that, over the past 60-plus years, unemployment rates have continued to fluctuate with the highest rates of unemployment occurring around 1983 and 2011.\" width=\"717\" height=\"491\" \/> <strong>Figure 1. The U.S. Unemployment Rate, 1948\u20132016.<\/strong> The U.S. unemployment rate moves up and down as the economy moves in and out of recessions. (Source: www.census.gov\/cps).[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"section\" title=\"The Historical U.S. Unemployment Rate\">\r\n<div id=\"m48721-CNX_Econ_C21_002\" class=\"figure\" title=\"Figure\u00a07.3.\u00a0The U.S. Unemployment Rate, 1948\u20132012\">\r\n<p class=\"title\">As we look at this data, several patterns stand out:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"orderedlist\">\r\n<ol class=\"orderedlist\" type=\"1\">\r\n \t<li class=\"listitem\">Unemployment rates do fluctuate over time. During the deep recessions of the early 1980s and of 2007\u20132009, unemployment reached roughly 10%. For comparison, during the Great Depression of the 1930s, the unemployment rate reached almost 25% of the labor force.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"listitem\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Unemployment rates in the late 1990s and into the mid-2000s were rather low by historical standards. The unemployment rate was below 5% from 1997 to 2000 and near 5% during almost all of 2006\u20132007. The previous time unemployment had been less than 5% for three consecutive years was three decades earlier, from 1968 to 1970.\u00a0It has returned to this level in 2016.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"listitem\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">The unemployment rate never falls all the way to zero. Indeed, it never seems to get below 3%\u2014and it stays that low only for very short periods. (Reasons why this is the case will be discussed later.)<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"listitem\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">The timing of rises and falls in unemployment matches fairly well with the timing of upswings and downswings in the overall economy. During periods of recession and\u00a0depression, unemployment is high. During periods of economic growth, unemployment tends to be lower.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"listitem\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">No significant upward or downward trend in unemployment rates is apparent. This point is especially worth noting because the U.S. population nearly quadrupled from 76 million in 1900 to over 314 million by 2012. Moreover, a higher proportion of U.S. adults are now in the paid workforce, because women have entered the paid labor force in significant numbers in recent decades. Women composed 18% of the paid workforce in 1900 and nearly half of the paid workforce in 2012. But despite the increased number of workers, as well as ot<\/span>her economic events like globalization and the continuous invention of new technologies, the economy has provided jobs without causing any long-term upward or downward trend in unemployment rates.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"section\" title=\"Unemployment Rates by Group\">\r\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\r\n<div>\r\n<div>\r\n<h2 id=\"m48721-fs-idm18429232\"><span class=\"cnx-gentext-section cnx-gentext-t\">Unemployment Rates by Group<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nUnemployment is not distributed evenly across the U.S. population. Figure 2 shows unemployment rates broken down in various ways: by gender, age, and race\/ethnicity.\r\n<div id=\"m48721-CNX_Econ_C21_011\" class=\"figure\" title=\"Figure\u00a07.4.\u00a0Unemployment Rate by Demographic Group\">\r\n<div class=\"body\">\r\n<div class=\"mediaobject\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4470\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"780\"]<img class=\"wp-image-4470 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1294\/2016\/07\/11180128\/unemploymentratesthreecharts.jpg\" alt=\"The line graphs show how unemployment rates since 1972 have changed for various demographics. Unemployment rates for people over the age of 55 have remained lower than unemployment rates for people ages 16\u201354. While unemployment rates for all ethnicities tend to rise and fall around the same time, it is notable that the unemployment rate for whites has always been lower than that of Blacks and Hispanics.\" width=\"780\" height=\"787\" \/> <strong>Figure 2.<\/strong> <strong>Unemployment Rate by Demographic Group.<\/strong> <strong>(a) By gender, 1972\u20132012.<\/strong> Unemployment rates for men used to be lower than unemployment rates for women, but in recent decades, the two rates have been very close, often with the unemployment rate for men somewhat higher. <strong>(b) By age, 1972\u20132012.<\/strong> Unemployment rates are highest for the very young and become lower with age. <strong>(c) By race and ethnicity, 1972\u20132012<\/strong>. Although unemployment rates for all groups tend to rise and fall together, the unemployment rate for whites has been lower than the unemployment rate for Blacks and Hispanics in recent decades. (Source: www.census.gov\/bls).[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe unemployment rate for women had historically tended to be higher than the unemployment rate for men, perhaps reflecting the historical pattern that women were seen as \u201csecondary\u201d earners. By about 1980, however, the unemployment rate for women was essentially the same as that for men, as shown in 2(a). During the recession of 2008\u20132009, however, the unemployment rate climbed higher for men than for women.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_6610\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"621\"]<img class=\"wp-image-6610 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/06\/06210701\/gender_gap_fig11.jpg\" alt=\"The gender unemployment gap between 1948 and 2018, showing that women typically were more exposed to joblessness than men, until after 1983.\" width=\"621\" height=\"353\" \/> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. While women had historically more affected by unemployment, there is very little gender unemployment gap today.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nYounger workers tend to have higher unemployment, while mid<span style=\"color: #333333;\">dle-aged workers tend to have lower unemployment, probably because the middle-aged workers feel the responsibility of needing to have a job more heavily, in addition to having more experience. Younger workers move in and out of jobs (and in and out of the labor force) more easily. Elderly workers have extremely low rates of unemployment, because those who do n<\/span>ot have jobs often exit the labor force by retiring, and thus are not counted in the unemployment statistics. Figure 2(b) shows unemployment rates for women divided by age; the pattern for men is similar.\r\n\r\nThe unemployment rate for African-Americans is substantially higher than the rate for other racial or ethnic groups, a fact that surely reflects, to some extent, a pattern of discrimination that has constrained Blacks\u2019 labor market opportunities. However, the gaps between unemployment rates for whites and for Blacks and Hispanics diminished in the 1990s, as shown in Figure 3(c). In fact, unemployment rates for Blacks and Hispanics were at the lowest levels for several decades in the mid-2000s before rising during the Great Recession of 2008.\r\n\r\nFinally, those with less education typically suffer higher unemployment. In early 2013, for example, the unemployment rate for those with a college degree was 3.7%; for those with some college but not a four-year degree, the unemployment rate was 6.0%; for high school graduates with no additional degree, the unemployment rate was 7.6%; and for those without a high school diploma, the unemployment rate was 10.3%. This pattern may arise because additional education offers better connections to the labor market and higher demand, or it may occur because the labor market opportunities for low-skilled workers are less attractive than the opportunities for the more highly-skilled. Because of lower pay, low-skilled workers may be less motivated to find jobs.\r\n<h2>Thinking about Unemployment<\/h2>\r\nWe cannot rely on unemployment statistics to provide a clear picture of total unemployment in the United States. First, unemployment statistics do not take into account <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1662724\">underemployment<\/span><\/strong>, a state in which a person accepts a lower paying, lower status job than their education and experience qualifies them to perform. Second, unemployment statistics only count those:\r\n<ol id=\"fs-id1558662\">\r\n \t<li>who are actively looking for work<\/li>\r\n \t<li>who have not earned income from a job in the past four weeks<\/li>\r\n \t<li>who are ready, willing, and able to work<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1552431\">The unemployment statistics provided by the U.S. government are rarely accurate, because many of the unemployed become discouraged and stop looking for work. Not only that, but these statistics undercount the youngest and oldest workers, the chronically unemployed (e.g., homeless), and seasonal and migrant workers.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id3126810\">A certain amount of unemployment is a direct result of the relative inflexibility of the labor market, considered <strong>structural unemployment<\/strong>, which describes when there is a societal level of disjuncture between people seeking jobs and the available jobs. This mismatch can be geographic (they are hiring in California, but most unemployed live in Alabama), technological (skilled workers are replaced by machines, as in the auto industry), or can result from any sudden change in the types of jobs people are seeking versus the types of companies that are hiring.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2386762\">Because of the high standard of living in the United States, many people are working at full-time jobs but are still poor by the standards of relative poverty. They are the working poor. The United States has a higher percentage of working poor than many other developed countries (Brady, Fullerton and Cross 2010). In terms of employment, the Bureau of Labor Statistics defines the working poor as those who have spent at least 27 weeks working or looking for work, and yet remain below the poverty line. Many of the facts about the working poor are as expected: Those who work only part time are more likely to be classified as working poor than those with full-time employment; higher levels of education lead to less likelihood of being among the working po<span style=\"color: #333333;\">or; gender and race impact ones odds of being in this group and those with children under 18 are four times more likely than those without children to fall into this category. In 2016, the working poor rate, which is the the ratio of the working poor to all individuals in the labor force for at lest 27 weeks or more, was 4.9\u00a0 percent, or 7.6 million Americans, down from 2015. In that same year women were more likely than men to be among the working poor. The rate for Blacks and Hispanics were 8.7 percent and 8.5 percent, respectively, compared with 4.3 percent for whites and 3.5 percent for Asians\u00a0(U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 2016).<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_6611\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"881\"]<img class=\"wp-image-6611\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/06\/06211418\/chart-1.jpeg\" alt=\"Working poor-rates by gender, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, 2016. It shows that total rates of working poor for everyone was around 5%, but slightly higher for women. This difference is exaggerated for Hispanic women, and especially for Black or African-American women.\" width=\"881\" height=\"583\" \/> <strong>Figure 4.<\/strong>\u00a0Women are disproportionately represented in the working-poor, especially Black and Hispanic women.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Age also plays a factor in being classified as the working poor. \u00a0The working-poor rate of employed youths 20 to 24 years old was 8.7 percent in 2016, considerably higher than the rates for workers ages 35 to 44 (5.6 percent) and 55 to 64 (2.8 percent). Workers age 65 and older had a working-poor rate of 1.5 percent.\u00a0 (Chart 1) [footnote]BLS Reports.\u00a0A profile of the working poor, 2016.\u00a0Retrieved from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.bls.gov\/opub\/reports\/working-poor\/2016\/home.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.bls.gov\/opub\/reports\/working-poor\/2016\/home.htm<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/section>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_8855\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"665\"]<img class=\" wp-image-8855\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/06\/15154356\/percent_poverty-300x195.jpg\" alt=\"A map of the United States shows the percentage of people in poverty by state. New Mexico, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Kentucky, and West Virginia have 15 percent or more people living in poverty. Nevada, Arizona, Montana, Texas, Missouri, Michigan, Ohio, Florida, Georgia, Pennsylvania, and New York have 12 percent to 14.9 percent living in poverty. California, Oregon, Idaho, South Dakota, Illinois, Indiana had 11 percent of people living in poverty. Utah, Colorado, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Massachusetts have less than 9.5 percent living in poverty.\" width=\"665\" height=\"432\" \/> <strong>Figure 5.\u00a0<\/strong>Poverty rates vary by states and region. As you can see, areas with the highest level of poverty are relaively tightly clustered, but the second-highest rates of poverty occur in states across the nation, from Nevada and Arizona in the Southwest to New York in the Northeast. (Credit: U.S. Census Bureau)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<section id=\"eip-id1286030\">\r\n<div class=\"section\" title=\"Unemployment Rates by Group\">\r\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id2627522\"><\/figure>\r\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id1308908\"><\/figure>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3><span style=\"color: #333333;\">MillenNials and Poverty<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<div class=\"mceTemp\"><\/div>\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Millennials, or Americans born between 1982 and 2000, now number 83.1 million and represent more than one quarter of the nation\u2019s population. Young adults today are marrying at lower rates than previous generations, and self-reports suggest that a lack of economic security including wages, poverty, and housing (e.g., housing costs and living arrangements) are all associated with lower marriage rates among young adults.\u00a0[footnote] Gurrentz, Benjamin (April 2018) Millennial Marriage: How Much Does Economic Security Matter to Marriage Rates for Young Adults?<\/span><span style=\"color: #333333; font-size: 1.15em; font-weight: 600;\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial; color: #333333;\">Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.census.gov\/library\/working-papers\/2018\/demo\/SEHSD-WP2018-09.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.census.gov\/library\/working-papers\/2018\/demo\/SEHSD-WP2018-09.html<\/a>[\/footnote]. According to Pew Research (2017) more millennial households are in poverty than households headed by any other generation. In 2016, of the approximate 17 million U.S. household living in poverty, 5.3 million were headed by a millennial.[footnote] Fry, Richard (2017).\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">5 facts about Millennial households<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from:\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial; color: #333333;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2017\/09\/06\/5-facts-about-millennial-households\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2017\/09\/06\/5-facts-about-millennial-households\/<\/a>[\/footnote]\\<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_6135\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"285\"]<img class=\"wp-image-6135\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/06\/01161348\/FT_17.09.05_millennialHouseholds_poverty.png\" alt=\"More households headed by a millennial are in poverty than other generations. 5.3 million millennials, 4.2 million in gen x, 5 million baby boomers, and 2.0 of the silent\/greatest generation.\" width=\"285\" height=\"358\" \/> <strong>Figure 5<\/strong>. Millennials face greater rates of poverty when compared with other generations.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"eip-934\">Most developed countries such as the United States protect their citizens from extreme poverty by providing different levels of social services such as unemployment insurance, welfare, food assistance, and so on. They may also provide job training and retraining so that people can reenter the job market. In the past, the elderly were particularly vulnerable to falling into poverty after they stopped working; however, pensions, retirement plans, and Social Security were designed to help prevent this. A major concern in the United States is the rising number of young people growing up in poverty. Growing up poor can cut off access to the education and services people need to move out of poverty and into stable employment. As we saw, more education was often a key to stability, and those raised in poverty are the ones least able to find well-paying work, perpetuating a cycle.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm414656768\" class=\" \">Another notion important to sociologists and citizens is the expense of being poor. In a practical sense, people with more money on hand, better credit, a more stable income, and reliable insurance can purchase items or services in different ways than people who lack those things. For example, someone with a higher income can pay bills more reliably, as well as have more credit extended to them through credit cards or loans. When it comes time for those people to purchase a car, for example, they can likely negotiate a lower monthly payment or less money down. In an even more simplistic situation, people with more spending money can buy groceries in bulk, spending far less per unit than those who must purchase smaller portions. The single greatest expense for most adults is housing; beyond its significant portion of a family's expenses, housing drives many other costs, such as transportation (how close does someone live to the places they need to go), childcare, and other areas. And people in poverty pay significantly more for their housing than others \u2013 sometimes 70-80 percent of their total income. Those with fewer resources are also more likely to rent rather than own, so they do not build credit in the same way, nor do they have the opportunity to sell the property later and utilize their equity (Nobles 2019).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1278288\" class=\" \">The ways that governments, organizations, individuals, and society as a whole help the poor are matters of significant debate, informed by extensive study. Sociologists and other professionals contribute to these conversations and provide evidence of the impacts of these circumstances and interventions to change them. The decisions made on these issues have a profound effect on working in the United States.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Why do you think millennials have such a high number of households living in poverty?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1933958\" class=\"short-answer\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]discouraged workers:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]those who have stopped looking for employment due to the lack of suitable positions available[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[glossary-term]structural unemployment:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a societal level of disjuncture between people seeking jobs and the jobs that are available[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[glossary-term]out of the labor force:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]those who are not working and not looking for work\u2014whether they want employment or not; also termed \"not in the labor force\u201d[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[glossary-term]underemployed:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]individuals who are employed in a job that is below their skills[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[glossary-term]underemployment:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a state in which a person accepts a lower paying, lower status job than his or her education and experience qualifies him or her to perform[\/glossary-definition][\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<figure><\/figure>\n<section id=\"fs-id1847908\"><\/section>\n<section id=\"eip-id1286030\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Describe the relationship between poverty, work, and unemployment<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Poverty in the United States<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1814198\">When people lose their jobs during a recession or in a changing job market, it takes longer to find a new one, if they can find one at all.\u00a0 Also, according to (Hicks 2013), those with higher human capital, or years of education, have a much more difficult time finding work. When people do find a job,\u00a0it is often at a much lower wage or not full time. This can force people into poverty. In the United States, we tend to have what is called relative poverty, defined as being unable to live the lifestyle of the average person in your country. This must be contrasted with the extreme poverty that is frequently found in underdeveloped countries and defined as the inability, or near-inability, to afford basic necessities such as food (Byrns 2011). (You can review more about poverty and differences in terminology in the module on inequality.)\u00a0 <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Hicks, M. J. (2013). Notes On: Labor Markets After the Great Recession: Unemployment and Policy for Indiana. Labor Law Journal, 64(2), 103\u2013113. Retrieved from http:\/\/search.ebscohost.com\/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=bth&amp;AN=88045408&amp;site=ehost-live\" id=\"return-footnote-1783-1\" href=\"#footnote-1783-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_015e6d34-9e48-49c4-b2ed-d96459ccb587\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/015e6d34-9e48-49c4-b2ed-d96459ccb587?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_015e6d34-9e48-49c4-b2ed-d96459ccb587\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>The Historical U.S. Unemployment Rate<\/h2>\n<p>Examining unemployment can help us better understand poverty in the United States. Let&#8217;s look at what the unemployment rate is really telling us. The <strong>unemployment rate<\/strong> is not the percentage of the total adult population without jobs, but rather the percentage of adults who are in the labor force but who do not have jobs. Even with the \u201cout of the labor force\u201d category, there are still some people that are mislabeled in the categorization of employed, unemployed, or out of the labor force. There are some people who have only part time or temporary jobs and who are looking for full time and permanent employment that are counted as employed, though they are not employed in the way they would like or need to be. Additionally, there are individuals who are <strong>underemployed<\/strong>. This includes those that are trained or skilled for one type or level of work who are working in a lower paying job or one that does not utilize their skills. For example, an individual with a college degree in finance who is working as a sales clerk would be conside<span style=\"color: #333333;\">red underemployed. They are, however, also counted in the employed group. All of these individuals fall under the umbrella of the term \u201chidden unemployment.\u201d <\/span><strong>Discouraged workers<\/strong>, those who have stopped looking for employment and, hence, are no longer counted in the unemployed also fall into this group.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Let&#8217;s look at how unemployment rates have changed over time and how various groups of people are affected by unemployment differently. Figure 1 shows the historical pattern of U.S. unemployment since 1948.\u00a0While it clearly fluctuates over time, the unemployment rate seems to return to a range of 4% to 6%. There does not seem to be a long-term trend toward<\/span> the rate moving generally higher or generally lower.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_10270\" style=\"width: 727px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-10270\" class=\"wp-image-10270 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2043\/2015\/05\/25105757\/Screen-Shot-2018-04-25-at-5.57.27-AM.png\" alt=\"The line graph reveals that, over the past 60-plus years, unemployment rates have continued to fluctuate with the highest rates of unemployment occurring around 1983 and 2011.\" width=\"717\" height=\"491\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-10270\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1. The U.S. Unemployment Rate, 1948\u20132016.<\/strong> The U.S. unemployment rate moves up and down as the economy moves in and out of recessions. (Source: www.census.gov\/cps).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"section\" title=\"The Historical U.S. Unemployment Rate\">\n<div id=\"m48721-CNX_Econ_C21_002\" class=\"figure\" title=\"Figure\u00a07.3.\u00a0The U.S. Unemployment Rate, 1948\u20132012\">\n<p class=\"title\">As we look at this data, several patterns stand out:<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"orderedlist\">\n<ol class=\"orderedlist\" type=\"1\">\n<li class=\"listitem\">Unemployment rates do fluctuate over time. During the deep recessions of the early 1980s and of 2007\u20132009, unemployment reached roughly 10%. For comparison, during the Great Depression of the 1930s, the unemployment rate reached almost 25% of the labor force.<\/li>\n<li class=\"listitem\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Unemployment rates in the late 1990s and into the mid-2000s were rather low by historical standards. The unemployment rate was below 5% from 1997 to 2000 and near 5% during almost all of 2006\u20132007. The previous time unemployment had been less than 5% for three consecutive years was three decades earlier, from 1968 to 1970.\u00a0It has returned to this level in 2016.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"listitem\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">The unemployment rate never falls all the way to zero. Indeed, it never seems to get below 3%\u2014and it stays that low only for very short periods. (Reasons why this is the case will be discussed later.)<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"listitem\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">The timing of rises and falls in unemployment matches fairly well with the timing of upswings and downswings in the overall economy. During periods of recession and\u00a0depression, unemployment is high. During periods of economic growth, unemployment tends to be lower.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"listitem\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">No significant upward or downward trend in unemployment rates is apparent. This point is especially worth noting because the U.S. population nearly quadrupled from 76 million in 1900 to over 314 million by 2012. Moreover, a higher proportion of U.S. adults are now in the paid workforce, because women have entered the paid labor force in significant numbers in recent decades. Women composed 18% of the paid workforce in 1900 and nearly half of the paid workforce in 2012. But despite the increased number of workers, as well as ot<\/span>her economic events like globalization and the continuous invention of new technologies, the economy has provided jobs without causing any long-term upward or downward trend in unemployment rates.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"section\" title=\"Unemployment Rates by Group\">\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<div>\n<div>\n<h2 id=\"m48721-fs-idm18429232\"><span class=\"cnx-gentext-section cnx-gentext-t\">Unemployment Rates by Group<\/span><\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Unemployment is not distributed evenly across the U.S. population. Figure 2 shows unemployment rates broken down in various ways: by gender, age, and race\/ethnicity.<\/p>\n<div id=\"m48721-CNX_Econ_C21_011\" class=\"figure\" title=\"Figure\u00a07.4.\u00a0Unemployment Rate by Demographic Group\">\n<div class=\"body\">\n<div class=\"mediaobject\">\n<div id=\"attachment_4470\" style=\"width: 790px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4470\" class=\"wp-image-4470 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1294\/2016\/07\/11180128\/unemploymentratesthreecharts.jpg\" alt=\"The line graphs show how unemployment rates since 1972 have changed for various demographics. Unemployment rates for people over the age of 55 have remained lower than unemployment rates for people ages 16\u201354. While unemployment rates for all ethnicities tend to rise and fall around the same time, it is notable that the unemployment rate for whites has always been lower than that of Blacks and Hispanics.\" width=\"780\" height=\"787\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4470\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2.<\/strong> <strong>Unemployment Rate by Demographic Group.<\/strong> <strong>(a) By gender, 1972\u20132012.<\/strong> Unemployment rates for men used to be lower than unemployment rates for women, but in recent decades, the two rates have been very close, often with the unemployment rate for men somewhat higher. <strong>(b) By age, 1972\u20132012.<\/strong> Unemployment rates are highest for the very young and become lower with age. <strong>(c) By race and ethnicity, 1972\u20132012<\/strong>. Although unemployment rates for all groups tend to rise and fall together, the unemployment rate for whites has been lower than the unemployment rate for Blacks and Hispanics in recent decades. (Source: www.census.gov\/bls).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The unemployment rate for women had historically tended to be higher than the unemployment rate for men, perhaps reflecting the historical pattern that women were seen as \u201csecondary\u201d earners. By about 1980, however, the unemployment rate for women was essentially the same as that for men, as shown in 2(a). During the recession of 2008\u20132009, however, the unemployment rate climbed higher for men than for women.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_6610\" style=\"width: 631px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6610\" class=\"wp-image-6610 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/06\/06210701\/gender_gap_fig11.jpg\" alt=\"The gender unemployment gap between 1948 and 2018, showing that women typically were more exposed to joblessness than men, until after 1983.\" width=\"621\" height=\"353\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-6610\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. While women had historically more affected by unemployment, there is very little gender unemployment gap today.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Younger workers tend to have higher unemployment, while mid<span style=\"color: #333333;\">dle-aged workers tend to have lower unemployment, probably because the middle-aged workers feel the responsibility of needing to have a job more heavily, in addition to having more experience. Younger workers move in and out of jobs (and in and out of the labor force) more easily. Elderly workers have extremely low rates of unemployment, because those who do n<\/span>ot have jobs often exit the labor force by retiring, and thus are not counted in the unemployment statistics. Figure 2(b) shows unemployment rates for women divided by age; the pattern for men is similar.<\/p>\n<p>The unemployment rate for African-Americans is substantially higher than the rate for other racial or ethnic groups, a fact that surely reflects, to some extent, a pattern of discrimination that has constrained Blacks\u2019 labor market opportunities. However, the gaps between unemployment rates for whites and for Blacks and Hispanics diminished in the 1990s, as shown in Figure 3(c). In fact, unemployment rates for Blacks and Hispanics were at the lowest levels for several decades in the mid-2000s before rising during the Great Recession of 2008.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, those with less education typically suffer higher unemployment. In early 2013, for example, the unemployment rate for those with a college degree was 3.7%; for those with some college but not a four-year degree, the unemployment rate was 6.0%; for high school graduates with no additional degree, the unemployment rate was 7.6%; and for those without a high school diploma, the unemployment rate was 10.3%. This pattern may arise because additional education offers better connections to the labor market and higher demand, or it may occur because the labor market opportunities for low-skilled workers are less attractive than the opportunities for the more highly-skilled. Because of lower pay, low-skilled workers may be less motivated to find jobs.<\/p>\n<h2>Thinking about Unemployment<\/h2>\n<p>We cannot rely on unemployment statistics to provide a clear picture of total unemployment in the United States. First, unemployment statistics do not take into account <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1662724\">underemployment<\/span><\/strong>, a state in which a person accepts a lower paying, lower status job than their education and experience qualifies them to perform. Second, unemployment statistics only count those:<\/p>\n<ol id=\"fs-id1558662\">\n<li>who are actively looking for work<\/li>\n<li>who have not earned income from a job in the past four weeks<\/li>\n<li>who are ready, willing, and able to work<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1552431\">The unemployment statistics provided by the U.S. government are rarely accurate, because many of the unemployed become discouraged and stop looking for work. Not only that, but these statistics undercount the youngest and oldest workers, the chronically unemployed (e.g., homeless), and seasonal and migrant workers.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id3126810\">A certain amount of unemployment is a direct result of the relative inflexibility of the labor market, considered <strong>structural unemployment<\/strong>, which describes when there is a societal level of disjuncture between people seeking jobs and the available jobs. This mismatch can be geographic (they are hiring in California, but most unemployed live in Alabama), technological (skilled workers are replaced by machines, as in the auto industry), or can result from any sudden change in the types of jobs people are seeking versus the types of companies that are hiring.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2386762\">Because of the high standard of living in the United States, many people are working at full-time jobs but are still poor by the standards of relative poverty. They are the working poor. The United States has a higher percentage of working poor than many other developed countries (Brady, Fullerton and Cross 2010). In terms of employment, the Bureau of Labor Statistics defines the working poor as those who have spent at least 27 weeks working or looking for work, and yet remain below the poverty line. Many of the facts about the working poor are as expected: Those who work only part time are more likely to be classified as working poor than those with full-time employment; higher levels of education lead to less likelihood of being among the working po<span style=\"color: #333333;\">or; gender and race impact ones odds of being in this group and those with children under 18 are four times more likely than those without children to fall into this category. In 2016, the working poor rate, which is the the ratio of the working poor to all individuals in the labor force for at lest 27 weeks or more, was 4.9\u00a0 percent, or 7.6 million Americans, down from 2015. In that same year women were more likely than men to be among the working poor. The rate for Blacks and Hispanics were 8.7 percent and 8.5 percent, respectively, compared with 4.3 percent for whites and 3.5 percent for Asians\u00a0(U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 2016).<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_6611\" style=\"width: 891px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6611\" class=\"wp-image-6611\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/06\/06211418\/chart-1.jpeg\" alt=\"Working poor-rates by gender, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, 2016. It shows that total rates of working poor for everyone was around 5%, but slightly higher for women. This difference is exaggerated for Hispanic women, and especially for Black or African-American women.\" width=\"881\" height=\"583\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-6611\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 4.<\/strong>\u00a0Women are disproportionately represented in the working-poor, especially Black and Hispanic women.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Age also plays a factor in being classified as the working poor. \u00a0The working-poor rate of employed youths 20 to 24 years old was 8.7 percent in 2016, considerably higher than the rates for workers ages 35 to 44 (5.6 percent) and 55 to 64 (2.8 percent). Workers age 65 and older had a working-poor rate of 1.5 percent.\u00a0 (Chart 1) <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"BLS Reports.\u00a0A profile of the working poor, 2016.\u00a0Retrieved from\u00a0https:\/\/www.bls.gov\/opub\/reports\/working-poor\/2016\/home.htm.\" id=\"return-footnote-1783-2\" href=\"#footnote-1783-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<div id=\"attachment_8855\" style=\"width: 675px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-8855\" class=\"wp-image-8855\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/06\/15154356\/percent_poverty-300x195.jpg\" alt=\"A map of the United States shows the percentage of people in poverty by state. New Mexico, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Kentucky, and West Virginia have 15 percent or more people living in poverty. Nevada, Arizona, Montana, Texas, Missouri, Michigan, Ohio, Florida, Georgia, Pennsylvania, and New York have 12 percent to 14.9 percent living in poverty. California, Oregon, Idaho, South Dakota, Illinois, Indiana had 11 percent of people living in poverty. Utah, Colorado, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Massachusetts have less than 9.5 percent living in poverty.\" width=\"665\" height=\"432\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-8855\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 5.\u00a0<\/strong>Poverty rates vary by states and region. As you can see, areas with the highest level of poverty are relaively tightly clustered, but the second-highest rates of poverty occur in states across the nation, from Nevada and Arizona in the Southwest to New York in the Northeast. (Credit: U.S. Census Bureau)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"eip-id1286030\">\n<div class=\"section\" title=\"Unemployment Rates by Group\">\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id2627522\"><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id1308908\"><\/figure>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3><span style=\"color: #333333;\">MillenNials and Poverty<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"mceTemp\"><\/div>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Millennials, or Americans born between 1982 and 2000, now number 83.1 million and represent more than one quarter of the nation\u2019s population. Young adults today are marrying at lower rates than previous generations, and self-reports suggest that a lack of economic security including wages, poverty, and housing (e.g., housing costs and living arrangements) are all associated with lower marriage rates among young adults.\u00a0<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Gurrentz, Benjamin (April 2018) Millennial Marriage: How Much Does Economic Security Matter to Marriage Rates for Young Adults?\u00a0Retrieved from https:\/\/www.census.gov\/library\/working-papers\/2018\/demo\/SEHSD-WP2018-09.html\" id=\"return-footnote-1783-3\" href=\"#footnote-1783-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a>. According to Pew Research (2017) more millennial households are in poverty than households headed by any other generation. In 2016, of the approximate 17 million U.S. household living in poverty, 5.3 million were headed by a millennial.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Fry, Richard (2017).\u00a05 facts about Millennial households. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from:\u00a0https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2017\/09\/06\/5-facts-about-millennial-households\/\" id=\"return-footnote-1783-4\" href=\"#footnote-1783-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a>\\<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_6135\" style=\"width: 295px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6135\" class=\"wp-image-6135\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/06\/01161348\/FT_17.09.05_millennialHouseholds_poverty.png\" alt=\"More households headed by a millennial are in poverty than other generations. 5.3 million millennials, 4.2 million in gen x, 5 million baby boomers, and 2.0 of the silent\/greatest generation.\" width=\"285\" height=\"358\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-6135\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 5<\/strong>. Millennials face greater rates of poverty when compared with other generations.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"eip-934\">Most developed countries such as the United States protect their citizens from extreme poverty by providing different levels of social services such as unemployment insurance, welfare, food assistance, and so on. They may also provide job training and retraining so that people can reenter the job market. In the past, the elderly were particularly vulnerable to falling into poverty after they stopped working; however, pensions, retirement plans, and Social Security were designed to help prevent this. A major concern in the United States is the rising number of young people growing up in poverty. Growing up poor can cut off access to the education and services people need to move out of poverty and into stable employment. As we saw, more education was often a key to stability, and those raised in poverty are the ones least able to find well-paying work, perpetuating a cycle.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm414656768\" class=\"\">Another notion important to sociologists and citizens is the expense of being poor. In a practical sense, people with more money on hand, better credit, a more stable income, and reliable insurance can purchase items or services in different ways than people who lack those things. For example, someone with a higher income can pay bills more reliably, as well as have more credit extended to them through credit cards or loans. When it comes time for those people to purchase a car, for example, they can likely negotiate a lower monthly payment or less money down. In an even more simplistic situation, people with more spending money can buy groceries in bulk, spending far less per unit than those who must purchase smaller portions. The single greatest expense for most adults is housing; beyond its significant portion of a family&#8217;s expenses, housing drives many other costs, such as transportation (how close does someone live to the places they need to go), childcare, and other areas. And people in poverty pay significantly more for their housing than others \u2013 sometimes 70-80 percent of their total income. Those with fewer resources are also more likely to rent rather than own, so they do not build credit in the same way, nor do they have the opportunity to sell the property later and utilize their equity (Nobles 2019).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1278288\" class=\"\">The ways that governments, organizations, individuals, and society as a whole help the poor are matters of significant debate, informed by extensive study. Sociologists and other professionals contribute to these conversations and provide evidence of the impacts of these circumstances and interventions to change them. The decisions made on these issues have a profound effect on working in the United States.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Why do you think millennials have such a high number of households living in poverty?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1933958\" class=\"short-answer\">\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>discouraged workers:<\/dt>\n<dd>those who have stopped looking for employment due to the lack of suitable positions available<\/dd>\n<dt>structural unemployment:<\/dt>\n<dd>a societal level of disjuncture between people seeking jobs and the jobs that are available<\/dd>\n<dt>out of the labor force:<\/dt>\n<dd>those who are not working and not looking for work\u2014whether they want employment or not; also termed &#8220;not in the labor force\u201d<\/dd>\n<dt>underemployed:<\/dt>\n<dd>individuals who are employed in a job that is below their skills<\/dd>\n<dt>underemployment:<\/dt>\n<dd>a state in which a person accepts a lower paying, lower status job than his or her education and experience qualifies him or her to perform<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-1783\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Rebecca Vonderhaar for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Work in the United States. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax CNX. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:cdCaIHP1@3\/Work-in-the-United-States\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:cdCaIHP1@3\/Work-in-the-United-States<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49<\/li><li>Patterns of Unemployment. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/vEmOH-_p@4.44:82qMsJce\/Patterns-of-Unemployment\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/vEmOH-_p@4.44:82qMsJce\/Patterns-of-Unemployment<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Economics. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Patterns of Unemployment. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-macroeconomics\/chapter\/patterns-of-unemployment\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-macroeconomics\/chapter\/patterns-of-unemployment\/<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Macroeconomics. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Work in the United States. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/introduction-sociology-3e\/pages\/18-3-work-in-the-united-states\">https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/introduction-sociology-3e\/pages\/18-3-work-in-the-united-states<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Sociology 3e. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/introduction-sociology-3e\/pages\/18-3-work-in-the-united-states<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>5 facts about Millennial households (graph). <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Richard Fry. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Pew Research Center. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2017\/09\/06\/5-facts-about-millennial-households\/\">https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2017\/09\/06\/5-facts-about-millennial-households\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>All Rights Reserved<\/em><\/li><li>The Gender Unemployment Gap Image. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Guillaume Vandenbroucke and Heting Zhu . <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.stlouisfed.org\/publications\/regional-economist\/second-quarter-2018\/gender-risk-unemployment\">https:\/\/www.stlouisfed.org\/publications\/regional-economist\/second-quarter-2018\/gender-risk-unemployment<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>All Rights Reserved<\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-1783-1\">Hicks, M. J. (2013). Notes On: Labor Markets After the Great Recession: Unemployment and Policy for Indiana. Labor Law Journal, 64(2), 103\u2013113. Retrieved from <a href=\"http:\/\/search.ebscohost.com\/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=bth&amp;AN=88045408&amp;site=ehost-live\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/search.ebscohost.com\/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=bth&amp;AN=88045408&amp;site=ehost-live<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-1783-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1783-2\">BLS Reports.\u00a0A profile of the working poor, 2016.\u00a0Retrieved from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.bls.gov\/opub\/reports\/working-poor\/2016\/home.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.bls.gov\/opub\/reports\/working-poor\/2016\/home.htm<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1783-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1783-3\"> Gurrentz, Benjamin (April 2018) Millennial Marriage: How Much Does Economic Security Matter to Marriage Rates for Young Adults?<\/span><span style=\"color: #333333; font-size: 1.15em; font-weight: 600;\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial; color: #333333;\">Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.census.gov\/library\/working-papers\/2018\/demo\/SEHSD-WP2018-09.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.census.gov\/library\/working-papers\/2018\/demo\/SEHSD-WP2018-09.html<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-1783-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1783-4\"> Fry, Richard (2017).\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">5 facts about Millennial households<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from:\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial; color: #333333;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2017\/09\/06\/5-facts-about-millennial-households\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2017\/09\/06\/5-facts-about-millennial-households\/<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-1783-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":10,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Work in the United States\",\"author\":\"OpenStax CNX\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:cdCaIHP1@3\/Work-in-the-United-States\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Patterns of 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