{"id":33,"date":"2016-04-16T02:00:00","date_gmt":"2016-04-16T02:00:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontosociology-waymaker\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=33"},"modified":"2024-04-25T03:13:49","modified_gmt":"2024-04-25T03:13:49","slug":"reading-the-development-of-sociology","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/chapter\/reading-the-development-of-sociology\/","title":{"raw":"The Development of Sociology","rendered":"The Development of Sociology"},"content":{"raw":"<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe the development\u00a0of sociology through\u00a0the work and theories of classical sociologists<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_8727\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"766\"]<img class=\"wp-image-8727 \" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/07194815\/6084164051a129068acd69c322add3e96497b610.jpeg\" alt=\"Portraits or artwork showing prominent figures in socilogy or related disciplines. They include Plato and Aristotle, Confucius, Khaldun, Voltaire, and Mary Wollenscraft.\" width=\"766\" height=\"214\" \/> <strong>Figure\u00a01<\/strong>. People have been thinking like sociologists long before sociology became a distinct academic discipline: Plato and Aristotle, Confucius, Khaldun, Voltaire, and Mary Wollenscraft set the stage for modern sociology. (Credit: A, B, C, and E Wikimedia Commons; D: publicdomainfiles.com.)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033124106\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Creating a Discipline: European Theorists<\/h2>\r\n<section id=\"fs-id8125616\">\r\n<h3>Auguste Comte (1798\u20131857)<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"150\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204108\/Figure_01_02_02a.jpg\" alt=\"A portrait of August Comte.\" width=\"150\" height=\"434\" \/> <strong>Figure 2.<\/strong> Auguste Comte is considered by many to be the father of sociology. (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn 1838\u00a0Auguste Comte, a Frenchman,\u00a0coined the term <strong>sociology<\/strong>, from the Latin\u00a0<em>socius\u00a0<\/em>(companion or associate) and the Greek term\u00a0<em>logia\u00a0<\/em>(study of speech). Comte believed sociology could unify other sciences and improve society. The French Revolution, which began in 1789, greatly impacted Comte, as did the Industrial Revolution in Europe (1760-1840). Questions related to economic class, social status, urbanization, and the dangers of factory work raised new issues about society and social interaction.\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Like other thinkers influenced by the Enlightenment (a philosophical movement of the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason and individualism), Comte believed society developed in stages. In\u00a0<em>The Course in Positive Philosophy<\/em> (1830\u20131842) and <em>A General View of Positivism<\/em> (1848), Comte described The Law of Three Stages as follows: <\/span>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">theological stage where people took religious views of society<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">metaphysical stage where people understood society as natural (not supernatural)<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">the scientific or\u00a0<strong>positivist\u00a0<\/strong>stage, where\u00a0society would be governed by reliable knowledge and would be understood in light of the knowledge produced by science, primarily sociology. <\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nComte originally studied to be an engineer, but later became a pupil of social philosopher Claude Henri de Rouvroy Comte de Saint-Simon (1760\u20131825). They both thought that social scientists could study society using the same scientific methods utilized in the natural sciences. Comte also believed in the potential of social scientists to improve society. He held that once scholars identified the laws that governed society, sociologists could address problems such as poor education and poverty.\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2619052\">Comte named the scientific study of social patterns <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2298441\">positivism<\/span><\/strong>. He believed that using scientific methods to reveal the laws by which societies and individuals interact would usher in a new scientifically oriented \u201cpositivist\u201d age of histor<span style=\"color: #333333;\">y. In this view, rational claims are seen as scientifically and systematically verifiable, and are opposed to metaphysical and or supernatural explanations. Although much of Comte's\u00a0<em>Courses<\/em>, a six-volume treatise, has been discarded, particularly the highly simplified and under-examined approach to social development, Comte's lasting contribution to sociology has been his classification of sciences. He presented a hierarchy of the sciences, with sociology at the top of a list that begins with mathematics, and then moves to astronomy, physics, chemistry, and biology. He argued that the sciences increase in complexity <\/span>and decrease in generality as you move up the hierarchy, and that they build upon each of the foundational sciences below. Comte\u00a0declared sociology the most complex science for its attempt to integrate all of the other sciences in order to explain natural laws of increasing complexity.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"eip-396\">\r\n<h3>Harriet Martineau (1802\u20131876)<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"eip-503\">Harriet Martineau was a writer who addressed a wide range of social science issues. She was an early observer of social practices, including economics, social class, religion, suicide, government, and women\u2019s rights. Her writing career began in 1831 with a series of stories titled <em>Illustrations of Political Economy<\/em>, in which she tried to educate ordinary people about the principles of economics.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"eip-id3855488\">Martineau was the first to translate Comte\u2019s writing from French to English and thereby introduced sociology to English-speaking scholars<span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">.<\/span> She is also credited with the first systematic methodological international comparisons of social institutions in two of her most famous sociological works: <em>Society in America<\/em> (1837) and <em>Retrospect of Western Travel<\/em> (1838). Martineau found the workings of capitalism at odds with the professed moral principles of the United States; she identified faults of the free enterprise system in which workers were exploited and impoverished while business owners became wealthy. She further noted that the belief in all being created equal was inconsistent with the lack of women\u2019s rights. Much like Mary Wollstonecraft, Martineau was often discounted in her own time by the male domination of academic sociology.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1169033109367\">\r\n<h3>Karl Marx (1818\u20131883)<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"180\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204109\/Figure_01_02_03.jpg\" alt=\"A photo of Karl Marx.\" width=\"180\" height=\"393\" \/> <strong>Figure 3.<\/strong> Karl Marx was one of the founders of sociology. His ideas about social conflict are still relevant today. (Photo courtesy of John Mayall\/Wikimedia Commons)[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1748115\">Karl Marx was a German social philosopher and economist. In 1848 he and Friedrich Engels (1820\u20131895) coauthored <em>T<\/em><em>he Communist Manifesto<\/em>, which\u00a0is one of the most influential political manuscripts in history. It presents Marx's theory of society, which differed from what Comte proposed.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1365379\">Marx rejected Comte's positivism. He believed that societies grew and changed as a result of the struggles of different social classes as they sought control over the means of production. At the time he was developing his theories, the Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism had led to great disparities in wealth between the owners of the factories and workers. Capitalism, an economic system characterized by private or corporate ownership of goods and the means to produce them, grew in many nations.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1684316\">Marx predicted that inequalities of capitalism would become so extreme that workers would eventually revolt. This would lead to the collapse of capitalism, which would be replaced by communism. Communism is an economic system under which there is no private or corporate ownership of the means of production. Instead, economic resources are owned communally and are distributed as needed. Marx believed that communism was a more equitable system than capitalism.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1369857\">While his economic predictions may not have come true in the time frame or in the locations he predicted, Marx\u2019s idea that economic, class-based conflict leads to changes in society is still one of the major theories used in modern sociology.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033069407\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">Herbert Spencer (1820\u20131903)<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm370371664\" class=\" \">In 1873, the English philosopher Herbert Spencer published\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">The Study of Sociology<\/em>, the first book with the term \u201csociology\u201d in the title. Spencer rejected much of Comte\u2019s philosophy as well as Marx\u2019s theory of class struggle and his support of communism. Instead, he favored a form of government that allowed market forces to control capitalism. His work influenced many early sociologists including \u00c9mile Durkheim (1858\u20131917). Spencer, using Charles Darwin\u2019s work as a comparison said, \u201cThis survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called \u2018natural selection,\u2019 or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life.\u201d (Spencer, 1864) The statement is often misinterpreted and adopted by those who believe in the superiority of one race over another.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"eip-919\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">Georg Simmel (1858\u20131918)<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm362220192\" class=\" \">Georg Simmel was a German art critic who wrote widely on social and political issues as well. Simmel took an anti-positivism stance and addressed topics such as social conflict, the function of money, individual identity in city life, and the European fear of outsiders (Stapley 2010). Much of his work focused on micro-level theories and analyzed the dynamics of two-person and three-person groups. His work also emphasized individual culture as the creative capacities of individuals (Ritzer and Goodman 2004).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/section><section id=\"eip-id1170985915840\">\r\n<h3>\u00c9mile Durkheim (1858\u20131917)<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2770260\">Durkheim helped legitimize and define sociology as a formal academic discipline by establishing the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895 and by publishing his <em>Rules of the Sociological Method<\/em>\u00a0(1895). In another important work, <em>Division of Labour in Society<\/em> (1893), Durkheim articulated his theory of how societies transform from a primitive state into a capitalist, industrial society. According to Durkheim, people rise to their proper levels in society based on merit.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1207081\">Durkheim believed that sociologists could study objective \u201csocial facts.\" He also believed that through such studies it would be possible to determine if a society was \u201chealthy\u201d or \u201cpathological.\u201d He saw healthy societies as stable, while pathological societies experienced a breakdown in social norms between individuals and society.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1453104\">In 1897, Durkheim attempted to demonstrate the effectiveness of his rules of social research when he published a work titled <em>Suicide<\/em>. Durkheim examined suicide statistics in different police districts to research differences between Catholic and Protestant communities. He attributed the differences to socioreligious forces rather than to individual or psychological causes.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Max Weber (1864\u20131920)<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2916989\">Prominent sociologist Max Weber established a sociology department in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich in 1919. Weber wrote on many topics, including political change in Russia and social forces that affect factory workers. He is best known for his book\u00a0<em>The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism\u00a0<\/em>(1904). The theory that Weber sets forth in this book, which describes how religious belief shapes work habits and thus affects the larger social, political, and economic world, is still controversial. Some believe that Weber argued that the beliefs of many Protestants, especially Calvinists, led to the creation of capitalism. Others interpret it as simply claiming that the ideologies (i.e., belief systems) of capitalism and Protestantism are complementary.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2281913\">Weber believed that it was difficult, if not impossible, to use standard scientific methods to accurately predict the behavior of groups. This view stood in opposition to positivism, which applied systematic, scientific interpretive frameworks to social phenomena in the same sense that one might apply them to natural phenomena. \u00a0Instead, Weber proposed a more empathic interpretive method that would take into account one's own cultural biases and orientations. With fellow sociologist Wilhelm Dilthey, \u00a0Weber introduced the concept of <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1510093\"><em>verstehen<\/em><\/span><\/strong>, a German word that means to understand in a deep, empathetic way. In seeking verstehen, outside observers of a social world\u2014an entire culture or a small setting\u2014attempt to understand it from an insider\u2019s point of view.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2859898\">In his book <em>The Nature of Social Action<\/em> (1922), Weber described sociology as striving to \"interpret the meaning of social action and thereby give a causal explanation of the way in which action proceeds and the effects it produces.\" He and other like-minded sociologists proposed a philosophy of <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1311983\">antipositivism<\/span><\/strong> whereby social researchers would strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values. This approach led to some research methods whose aim was not to generalize or predict (as is traditional in science), but to systematically gain an in-depth understanding of social worlds.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1472366\">The different approaches to research based on positivism or antipositivism are often considered the foundation for the differences found today between quantitative sociology and qualitative sociology. <span id=\"import-auto-id1663681\"><strong>Quantitative<\/strong> sociology<\/span> uses statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants. Researchers analyze data using statistical techniques to see if they can uncover patterns of human behavior. <span id=\"import-auto-id1588657\"><strong>Qualitative<\/strong> sociology<\/span> seeks to understand human behavior by learning about it through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and analysis of content sources (like books, magazines, journals, and popular media).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3><span class=\"os-subtitle-label\">Should We Raise the Minimum Wage?<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm379163344\" class=\" \">During his hard-fought 2020 campaign, President Joe Biden promised Americans that he would raise the federal minimum wage. Opponents of raising the minimum wage argue that some workers would get larger paychecks while others would lose their jobs, and companies would be less likely to hire new workers because of the increased cost of paying them. Biden and other proponents of raising the minimum wage contend that some job loss would be greatly offset by the positive effects on the standard of living of low-wage workers and reducing the income gap between the rich and poor.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm378403840\" class=\" \">Sociologists may consider the minimum wage issue from differing perspectives as well. How much of an impact would a minimum wage raise have for a single mother? Some might study the economic effects, such as her ability to pay bills and keep food on the table. Others might look at how reduced economic stress could improve family relationships. Some sociologists might research the impact on the status of small business owners. These could all be examples of public sociology, a branch of sociology that strives to bring sociological dialogue to public forums. The goals of public sociology are to increase understanding of the social factors that underlie social problems and assist in finding solutions. According to Michael Burawoy (2005), the challenge of public sociology is to engage multiple publics in multiple ways.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/0e3a6e6f-4ca6-4f38-9c73-15bb6f5a1f8d\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/b3eb0c62-e568-4e14-b117-170aaaa88f3f\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/322c5dc8-ae6a-47a7-8c24-333427ae2d2d\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"eip-id1169402148869\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Applying the Discipline: American Theorists and Practitioners<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_8729\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"625\"]<img class=\"wp-image-8729 \" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/08023438\/3aada80374ebb652e6e661b4c0ca9e3809066f23.jpeg\" alt=\"Portraits of William Sumner, W.E.B Du Bois, and Jane Adams.\" width=\"625\" height=\"309\" \/> <strong>Figure 4<\/strong>. From left to right, William Sumner, W.E.B. Du Bois, and Jane Adams. (Credit A, B, and C: Wikimedia Commons.)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div id=\"id2744413\" class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<div class=\"os-caption-container\"><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm371382448\" class=\" \">In the early 1900s, sociology reached universities in the United States. William Sumner held the first professorship in sociology (Yale University), Franklin Giddings was the first full professor of Sociology (Columbia University), and Albion Small wrote the first sociology textbook. Early American sociologists tested and applied the theories of the Europeans and became leaders in social research. Lester Ward (1841 \u2013 1913) developed social research methods and argued for the use of the scientific method and quantitative data (Chapter 2) to show the effectiveness of policies. In order for sociology to gain respectability in American academia, social researchers understood that they must adopt empirical approaches.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm355417312\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h4 data-type=\"title\">W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963)<\/h4>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm371647264\" class=\" \">William Edward Burghardt (W.E.B.) Du Bois, a Harvard-trained historian, pioneered the use of rigorous empirical methodology into sociology. His groundbreaking 1896-1897 study of the African American community in Philadelphia incorporated hundreds of interviews Du Bois conducted in order to document the familial and employment structures and assess the chief challenges of the community. These new, comprehensive research methods stood in stark contrast to the less scientific practices of the time, which Du Bois critiqued as being similar to doing research as if through the window of a moving car. His scientific approach became highly influential to entire schools of sociological study, and is considered a forerunner to contemporary practices. Additionally, Du Bois\u2019 1899 publication provided empirical evidence to challenge pseudoscientific ideas of biological racism (Morris, 2015; Green &amp; Wortham, 2018), which had been used as justification to oppress people of different races.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm380625312\" class=\" \">Du Bois also played a prominent role in the effort to increase rights for Black people. Concerned at the slow pace of progress and advice from some Black leaders to be more accommodating of racism, Du Bois became a leader in what would later be known as the Niagara Movement. In 1905, he and others drafted a declaration that called for immediate political, economic, and social equality for African Americans. A few years later, he helped found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and served as its director of publications.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm364865840\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">Thorstein Veblen (1857 \u2013 1929)<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm346200640\" class=\" \">After a brief stint as an unemployed college graduate, Thorstein Veblen began to study the economy through a social lens, writing about the leisure class, the business class, and other areas that touched on the idea of \u2018working\u2019 itself. He researched the chronically unemployed, the currently unemployed, the working classes, and the working classes.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm383142688\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">Jane Addams (1860-1935)<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm370285936\" class=\" \">Jane Addams founded\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Hull House<\/em>, a center that served needy immigrants through social and educational programs while providing extensive opportunities for sociological research. Founded in Chicago, Addams worked closely with University of Chicago\u2019s Chicago School of Sociology. This school of thought places much importance on environment in which relationships and behaviors develop. Research conducted at Hull House informed child labor, immigration, health care, and other areas of public policy.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm346408512\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm377217056\" class=\" \">Charles Horton Cooley posited that individuals compare themselves to others in order to check themselves against social standards and remain part of the group. Calling this idea \u2018the looking-glass self,\u2019 Cooley argued that we \u2018see\u2019 ourselves by the reactions of others with whom we interact. If someone reacts positively to our behavior, theoretically we will continue that behavior. He wrote substantially on what he saw as the order of life in\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Human Nature and the Social Order<\/em>\u00a0(1902) followed by\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Social Organization<\/em>\u00a0in 1909. He was very concerned with the increasing individualism and competitiveness of US society, fearing it would disrupt families as primary groups lost their importance.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm379326096\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">George Herbert Mead (1863\u20131931)<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm373097216\" class=\" \">George Herbert Mead was a philosopher and sociologist whose work focused on the ways in which the mind and the self were developed as a result of social processes (Cronk, n.d.). He argued that how an individual comes to view himself or herself is based to a very large extent on interactions with others. Though Mead adopted Cooley\u2019s concept of \u2018looking-glasses,\u2019 Mead felt that an individual\u2019s reaction to a positive or negative reflection depended on who the \u2018other\u2019 was. Individuals that had the greatest impact on a person\u2019s life were\u00a0<span id=\"term12\" data-type=\"term\">significant others<\/span>\u00a0while\u00a0<span id=\"term13\" data-type=\"term\">generalized others<\/span>\u00a0were the organized and generalized attitude of a social group. Mead often shares the title of father of symbolic interactionism with Cooley and Erving Goffman.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"eip-id1169402148869\">\r\n<h3>Ida B. Wells-Barnett (1862-1931)<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4056\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"210\"]<img class=\"wp-image-4056 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/17160723\/Mary_Garrity_-_Ida_B._Wells-Barnett_-_Google_Art_Project_-_restoration_crop-210x300.jpg\" alt=\"Ida B. Wells in an old photograph.\" width=\"210\" height=\"300\" \/> <strong>Figure 5<\/strong>. Ida B. Wells was a revolutionary teacher and journalist who brought many sociological issues to light, particularly racial and gender inequalities.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Ida B. Wells was <\/span>born into slavery in M<span style=\"color: #333333;\">ississippi to parents were freed after the Civil War and who went on to be politically active during Reconstruction (1865-1877). Wells' parents and younger brother died during a yellow fever epidemic in 1878 when she was just 16 years old. She became a teacher in a Black elementary school (Wells attended some college prior to her parents' deaths) so that her five other siblings would not be separated and sent to foster homes[footnote]\"Ida B. Wells biography,\" accessed September 10, 2018, A&amp;E Television Networks. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.biography.com\/people\/ida-b-wells-9527635\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.biography.com\/people\/ida-b-wells-9527635<\/a>[\/footnote]. She relocated from Mississippi to Memphis, Tennessee to earn higher wages, and to pursue further education.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">In 1884, when Wells was just 24 years old, she refused to give up her seat in a first-class ladies train car and was subsequently dragged from the car by the conductor and two men. After being criminally charged, Wells fought the case all the way to the Tennessee Supreme Court, based on the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which banned racial discrimination in public accommodations. Although Wells lost after the Supreme Court overturned the lower court's decision, her passion for equality and social justice only became stronger and more influential. (Her direct action would be echoed by Rosa Parks' civil disobedience 71 years later.) In 1891, she was fired from her teaching job for criticizing the quality of Blacks-only schools in Memphis and thus began a new career in journalism, starting at\u00a0the\u00a0<i>Memphis Free Speech and Headlight<\/i>\u00a0newspaper, which she later co-owned.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">After the lynching of three of her friends in 1892, Wells became one of the nation\u2019s most vocal anti-lynching activists. She<\/span><span style=\"color: #333333;\">\u00a0launched\u00a0an extensive investigation of lynching and published her findings in a pamphlet titled \u201cSouthern Horrors: Lynch Law in all its Phases,\u201d in 1892[footnote] Steptoe, Tyina (2007). Ida Wells Barnett. BlackPast. Retrieved from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.blackpast.org\/african-american-history\/barnett-ida-wells-1862-1931\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.blackpast.org\/african-american-history\/barnett-ida-wells-1862-1931\/<\/a><\/span><span style=\"color: #333333;\">[\/footnote]. Wells exposed lynching as a barbaric practice of whites in the South used to intimidate and oppress African Americans who represented economic and political competition\u2014and a subsequent threat to entrenched, hierarchical power\u2014for whites. A white mob eventually destroyed her newspaper office and presses, though this did not stifle her voice or prevent her investigative reporting from finding a national audience, particularly through a distribution network of Black-owned newspapers.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"eip-id1169402148869\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Wells was one of the founding members of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1908, but her name was left off the list of founding members. She also worked to have full inclusion for Black women in the Women's Suffrage Movement and participated in the 1913 Suffrage March in front of the White House. <\/span><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Although not formally trained as an academic sociologist, Wells was the epitome of a public sociologist because she examined racial and gender inequalities and made them public issues. In <em>Southern Horrors:\u00a0 Lynch Laws in All Its Phases <\/em>she stated,\u00a0\"The people must know before they can act, and there is no educator to compare with the press\" (1892). This forward-thinking statement is one of her many legacies in sociology.\u00a0<\/span><\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-idm376325712\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h4 data-type=\"title\">Robert E. Park (1864-1944)<\/h4>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm372148112\" class=\" \">Robert E. Park is best known as the founder of social ecology. Attached to the Chicago School, Park focused on how individuals lived within their environment. One of the first sociologists to focus on ethnic minorities, he wrote on the Belgian oppression of the Congolese. When he returned to the US, he and Ernest Burgess researched the inner city to show that no matter who lived there, social chaos was prevalent. As such, it was not the residents who caused the chaos but the environment.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-id1169033124106\"><section id=\"fs-id1169033100995\" class=\"short-answer\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1169033100582\" class=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1169033070594\" class=\"problem\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Further Research<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1773704\">Many sociologists helped shape the discipline. To learn more about prominent sociologists and how they changed sociology check out<a href=\"http:\/\/www.macionis.com\/resources-for-change\/profiles-of-powerful-sociologists\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u00a0Profiles of Powerful Sociologists<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/16fb9ed6-ae33-47b8-be51-9f600cf52bc4\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/dc7659f1-a3e7-4c43-b519-cdd3d51d2f84\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/41790bc5-570d-4423-b4d7-40bf28c02bad\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/b0881c3d-d371-4483-a99c-8b623d56deca\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1169033101000\" class=\"exercise\"><section>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1169033065393\" class=\"problem\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li id=\"import-auto-id2866120\">What do you make of Karl Marx\u2019s contributions to sociology? What perceptions of Marx have you been exposed to in your society, and how do those perceptions influence your views?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ida B. Wells emphasized the importance of the press 100 years ago as an educational tool. In what ways does this statement hold true today? How might one disagree that no teacher can compare with the press?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1383216\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>antipositivism:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1169033063495\">the view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-id1169568155294\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>generalized others:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1169584333746\">the organized and generalized attitude of a social group<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2110123\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>positivism:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1169033103199\">the scientific study of social patterns<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1361826\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>qualitative sociology:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id2483726\">in-depth interviews, focus groups, and\/or analysis of content sources as the source of its data<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-id2648958\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>quantitative sociology:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1169033060465\">statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-id1166175011306\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>significant others:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1166168628826\">specific individuals that impact a person's life<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1205323\" class=\"definition\">\r\n \t<dt>verstehen:<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1169033069059\">a German word that means to understand in a deep way<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section>","rendered":"<div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe the development\u00a0of sociology through\u00a0the work and theories of classical sociologists<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_8727\" style=\"width: 776px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-8727\" class=\"wp-image-8727\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/07194815\/6084164051a129068acd69c322add3e96497b610.jpeg\" alt=\"Portraits or artwork showing prominent figures in socilogy or related disciplines. They include Plato and Aristotle, Confucius, Khaldun, Voltaire, and Mary Wollenscraft.\" width=\"766\" height=\"214\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-8727\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure\u00a01<\/strong>. People have been thinking like sociologists long before sociology became a distinct academic discipline: Plato and Aristotle, Confucius, Khaldun, Voltaire, and Mary Wollenscraft set the stage for modern sociology. (Credit: A, B, C, and E Wikimedia Commons; D: publicdomainfiles.com.)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033124106\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Creating a Discipline: European Theorists<\/h2>\n<section id=\"fs-id8125616\">\n<h3>Auguste Comte (1798\u20131857)<\/h3>\n<div style=\"width: 160px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204108\/Figure_01_02_02a.jpg\" alt=\"A portrait of August Comte.\" width=\"150\" height=\"434\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2.<\/strong> Auguste Comte is considered by many to be the father of sociology. (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>In 1838\u00a0Auguste Comte, a Frenchman,\u00a0coined the term <strong>sociology<\/strong>, from the Latin\u00a0<em>socius\u00a0<\/em>(companion or associate) and the Greek term\u00a0<em>logia\u00a0<\/em>(study of speech). Comte believed sociology could unify other sciences and improve society. The French Revolution, which began in 1789, greatly impacted Comte, as did the Industrial Revolution in Europe (1760-1840). Questions related to economic class, social status, urbanization, and the dangers of factory work raised new issues about society and social interaction.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Like other thinkers influenced by the Enlightenment (a philosophical movement of the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason and individualism), Comte believed society developed in stages. In\u00a0<em>The Course in Positive Philosophy<\/em> (1830\u20131842) and <em>A General View of Positivism<\/em> (1848), Comte described The Law of Three Stages as follows: <\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">theological stage where people took religious views of society<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">metaphysical stage where people understood society as natural (not supernatural)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">the scientific or\u00a0<strong>positivist\u00a0<\/strong>stage, where\u00a0society would be governed by reliable knowledge and would be understood in light of the knowledge produced by science, primarily sociology. <\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Comte originally studied to be an engineer, but later became a pupil of social philosopher Claude Henri de Rouvroy Comte de Saint-Simon (1760\u20131825). They both thought that social scientists could study society using the same scientific methods utilized in the natural sciences. Comte also believed in the potential of social scientists to improve society. He held that once scholars identified the laws that governed society, sociologists could address problems such as poor education and poverty.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2619052\">Comte named the scientific study of social patterns <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2298441\">positivism<\/span><\/strong>. He believed that using scientific methods to reveal the laws by which societies and individuals interact would usher in a new scientifically oriented \u201cpositivist\u201d age of histor<span style=\"color: #333333;\">y. In this view, rational claims are seen as scientifically and systematically verifiable, and are opposed to metaphysical and or supernatural explanations. Although much of Comte&#8217;s\u00a0<em>Courses<\/em>, a six-volume treatise, has been discarded, particularly the highly simplified and under-examined approach to social development, Comte&#8217;s lasting contribution to sociology has been his classification of sciences. He presented a hierarchy of the sciences, with sociology at the top of a list that begins with mathematics, and then moves to astronomy, physics, chemistry, and biology. He argued that the sciences increase in complexity <\/span>and decrease in generality as you move up the hierarchy, and that they build upon each of the foundational sciences below. Comte\u00a0declared sociology the most complex science for its attempt to integrate all of the other sciences in order to explain natural laws of increasing complexity.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"eip-396\">\n<h3>Harriet Martineau (1802\u20131876)<\/h3>\n<p id=\"eip-503\">Harriet Martineau was a writer who addressed a wide range of social science issues. She was an early observer of social practices, including economics, social class, religion, suicide, government, and women\u2019s rights. Her writing career began in 1831 with a series of stories titled <em>Illustrations of Political Economy<\/em>, in which she tried to educate ordinary people about the principles of economics.<\/p>\n<p id=\"eip-id3855488\">Martineau was the first to translate Comte\u2019s writing from French to English and thereby introduced sociology to English-speaking scholars<span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">.<\/span> She is also credited with the first systematic methodological international comparisons of social institutions in two of her most famous sociological works: <em>Society in America<\/em> (1837) and <em>Retrospect of Western Travel<\/em> (1838). Martineau found the workings of capitalism at odds with the professed moral principles of the United States; she identified faults of the free enterprise system in which workers were exploited and impoverished while business owners became wealthy. She further noted that the belief in all being created equal was inconsistent with the lack of women\u2019s rights. Much like Mary Wollstonecraft, Martineau was often discounted in her own time by the male domination of academic sociology.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033109367\">\n<h3>Karl Marx (1818\u20131883)<\/h3>\n<div style=\"width: 190px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204109\/Figure_01_02_03.jpg\" alt=\"A photo of Karl Marx.\" width=\"180\" height=\"393\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3.<\/strong> Karl Marx was one of the founders of sociology. His ideas about social conflict are still relevant today. (Photo courtesy of John Mayall\/Wikimedia Commons)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1748115\">Karl Marx was a German social philosopher and economist. In 1848 he and Friedrich Engels (1820\u20131895) coauthored <em>T<\/em><em>he Communist Manifesto<\/em>, which\u00a0is one of the most influential political manuscripts in history. It presents Marx&#8217;s theory of society, which differed from what Comte proposed.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1365379\">Marx rejected Comte&#8217;s positivism. He believed that societies grew and changed as a result of the struggles of different social classes as they sought control over the means of production. At the time he was developing his theories, the Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism had led to great disparities in wealth between the owners of the factories and workers. Capitalism, an economic system characterized by private or corporate ownership of goods and the means to produce them, grew in many nations.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1684316\">Marx predicted that inequalities of capitalism would become so extreme that workers would eventually revolt. This would lead to the collapse of capitalism, which would be replaced by communism. Communism is an economic system under which there is no private or corporate ownership of the means of production. Instead, economic resources are owned communally and are distributed as needed. Marx believed that communism was a more equitable system than capitalism.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1369857\">While his economic predictions may not have come true in the time frame or in the locations he predicted, Marx\u2019s idea that economic, class-based conflict leads to changes in society is still one of the major theories used in modern sociology.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033069407\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">Herbert Spencer (1820\u20131903)<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm370371664\" class=\"\">In 1873, the English philosopher Herbert Spencer published\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">The Study of Sociology<\/em>, the first book with the term \u201csociology\u201d in the title. Spencer rejected much of Comte\u2019s philosophy as well as Marx\u2019s theory of class struggle and his support of communism. Instead, he favored a form of government that allowed market forces to control capitalism. His work influenced many early sociologists including \u00c9mile Durkheim (1858\u20131917). Spencer, using Charles Darwin\u2019s work as a comparison said, \u201cThis survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called \u2018natural selection,\u2019 or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life.\u201d (Spencer, 1864) The statement is often misinterpreted and adopted by those who believe in the superiority of one race over another.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"eip-919\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">Georg Simmel (1858\u20131918)<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm362220192\" class=\"\">Georg Simmel was a German art critic who wrote widely on social and political issues as well. Simmel took an anti-positivism stance and addressed topics such as social conflict, the function of money, individual identity in city life, and the European fear of outsiders (Stapley 2010). Much of his work focused on micro-level theories and analyzed the dynamics of two-person and three-person groups. His work also emphasized individual culture as the creative capacities of individuals (Ritzer and Goodman 2004).<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"eip-id1170985915840\">\n<h3>\u00c9mile Durkheim (1858\u20131917)<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2770260\">Durkheim helped legitimize and define sociology as a formal academic discipline by establishing the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895 and by publishing his <em>Rules of the Sociological Method<\/em>\u00a0(1895). In another important work, <em>Division of Labour in Society<\/em> (1893), Durkheim articulated his theory of how societies transform from a primitive state into a capitalist, industrial society. According to Durkheim, people rise to their proper levels in society based on merit.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1207081\">Durkheim believed that sociologists could study objective \u201csocial facts.&#8221; He also believed that through such studies it would be possible to determine if a society was \u201chealthy\u201d or \u201cpathological.\u201d He saw healthy societies as stable, while pathological societies experienced a breakdown in social norms between individuals and society.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1453104\">In 1897, Durkheim attempted to demonstrate the effectiveness of his rules of social research when he published a work titled <em>Suicide<\/em>. Durkheim examined suicide statistics in different police districts to research differences between Catholic and Protestant communities. He attributed the differences to socioreligious forces rather than to individual or psychological causes.<\/p>\n<h3>Max Weber (1864\u20131920)<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2916989\">Prominent sociologist Max Weber established a sociology department in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich in 1919. Weber wrote on many topics, including political change in Russia and social forces that affect factory workers. He is best known for his book\u00a0<em>The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism\u00a0<\/em>(1904). The theory that Weber sets forth in this book, which describes how religious belief shapes work habits and thus affects the larger social, political, and economic world, is still controversial. Some believe that Weber argued that the beliefs of many Protestants, especially Calvinists, led to the creation of capitalism. Others interpret it as simply claiming that the ideologies (i.e., belief systems) of capitalism and Protestantism are complementary.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2281913\">Weber believed that it was difficult, if not impossible, to use standard scientific methods to accurately predict the behavior of groups. This view stood in opposition to positivism, which applied systematic, scientific interpretive frameworks to social phenomena in the same sense that one might apply them to natural phenomena. \u00a0Instead, Weber proposed a more empathic interpretive method that would take into account one&#8217;s own cultural biases and orientations. With fellow sociologist Wilhelm Dilthey, \u00a0Weber introduced the concept of <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1510093\"><em>verstehen<\/em><\/span><\/strong>, a German word that means to understand in a deep, empathetic way. In seeking verstehen, outside observers of a social world\u2014an entire culture or a small setting\u2014attempt to understand it from an insider\u2019s point of view.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2859898\">In his book <em>The Nature of Social Action<\/em> (1922), Weber described sociology as striving to &#8220;interpret the meaning of social action and thereby give a causal explanation of the way in which action proceeds and the effects it produces.&#8221; He and other like-minded sociologists proposed a philosophy of <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1311983\">antipositivism<\/span><\/strong> whereby social researchers would strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values. This approach led to some research methods whose aim was not to generalize or predict (as is traditional in science), but to systematically gain an in-depth understanding of social worlds.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1472366\">The different approaches to research based on positivism or antipositivism are often considered the foundation for the differences found today between quantitative sociology and qualitative sociology. <span id=\"import-auto-id1663681\"><strong>Quantitative<\/strong> sociology<\/span> uses statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants. Researchers analyze data using statistical techniques to see if they can uncover patterns of human behavior. <span id=\"import-auto-id1588657\"><strong>Qualitative<\/strong> sociology<\/span> seeks to understand human behavior by learning about it through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and analysis of content sources (like books, magazines, journals, and popular media).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3><span class=\"os-subtitle-label\">Should We Raise the Minimum Wage?<\/span><\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm379163344\" class=\"\">During his hard-fought 2020 campaign, President Joe Biden promised Americans that he would raise the federal minimum wage. Opponents of raising the minimum wage argue that some workers would get larger paychecks while others would lose their jobs, and companies would be less likely to hire new workers because of the increased cost of paying them. Biden and other proponents of raising the minimum wage contend that some job loss would be greatly offset by the positive effects on the standard of living of low-wage workers and reducing the income gap between the rich and poor.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm378403840\" class=\"\">Sociologists may consider the minimum wage issue from differing perspectives as well. How much of an impact would a minimum wage raise have for a single mother? Some might study the economic effects, such as her ability to pay bills and keep food on the table. Others might look at how reduced economic stress could improve family relationships. Some sociologists might research the impact on the status of small business owners. These could all be examples of public sociology, a branch of sociology that strives to bring sociological dialogue to public forums. The goals of public sociology are to increase understanding of the social factors that underlie social problems and assist in finding solutions. According to Michael Burawoy (2005), the challenge of public sociology is to engage multiple publics in multiple ways.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_0e3a6e6f-4ca6-4f38-9c73-15bb6f5a1f8d\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/0e3a6e6f-4ca6-4f38-9c73-15bb6f5a1f8d?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_0e3a6e6f-4ca6-4f38-9c73-15bb6f5a1f8d\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_b3eb0c62-e568-4e14-b117-170aaaa88f3f\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/b3eb0c62-e568-4e14-b117-170aaaa88f3f?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_b3eb0c62-e568-4e14-b117-170aaaa88f3f\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_322c5dc8-ae6a-47a7-8c24-333427ae2d2d\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/322c5dc8-ae6a-47a7-8c24-333427ae2d2d?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_322c5dc8-ae6a-47a7-8c24-333427ae2d2d\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"eip-id1169402148869\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Applying the Discipline: American Theorists and Practitioners<\/h2>\n<div id=\"attachment_8729\" style=\"width: 635px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-8729\" class=\"wp-image-8729\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/08023438\/3aada80374ebb652e6e661b4c0ca9e3809066f23.jpeg\" alt=\"Portraits of William Sumner, W.E.B Du Bois, and Jane Adams.\" width=\"625\" height=\"309\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-8729\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 4<\/strong>. From left to right, William Sumner, W.E.B. Du Bois, and Jane Adams. (Credit A, B, and C: Wikimedia Commons.)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"id2744413\" class=\"os-figure\">\n<div class=\"os-caption-container\"><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm371382448\" class=\"\">In the early 1900s, sociology reached universities in the United States. William Sumner held the first professorship in sociology (Yale University), Franklin Giddings was the first full professor of Sociology (Columbia University), and Albion Small wrote the first sociology textbook. Early American sociologists tested and applied the theories of the Europeans and became leaders in social research. Lester Ward (1841 \u2013 1913) developed social research methods and argued for the use of the scientific method and quantitative data (Chapter 2) to show the effectiveness of policies. In order for sociology to gain respectability in American academia, social researchers understood that they must adopt empirical approaches.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-idm355417312\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h4 data-type=\"title\">W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963)<\/h4>\n<p id=\"fs-idm371647264\" class=\"\">William Edward Burghardt (W.E.B.) Du Bois, a Harvard-trained historian, pioneered the use of rigorous empirical methodology into sociology. His groundbreaking 1896-1897 study of the African American community in Philadelphia incorporated hundreds of interviews Du Bois conducted in order to document the familial and employment structures and assess the chief challenges of the community. These new, comprehensive research methods stood in stark contrast to the less scientific practices of the time, which Du Bois critiqued as being similar to doing research as if through the window of a moving car. His scientific approach became highly influential to entire schools of sociological study, and is considered a forerunner to contemporary practices. Additionally, Du Bois\u2019 1899 publication provided empirical evidence to challenge pseudoscientific ideas of biological racism (Morris, 2015; Green &amp; Wortham, 2018), which had been used as justification to oppress people of different races.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm380625312\" class=\"\">Du Bois also played a prominent role in the effort to increase rights for Black people. Concerned at the slow pace of progress and advice from some Black leaders to be more accommodating of racism, Du Bois became a leader in what would later be known as the Niagara Movement. In 1905, he and others drafted a declaration that called for immediate political, economic, and social equality for African Americans. A few years later, he helped found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and served as its director of publications.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm364865840\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">Thorstein Veblen (1857 \u2013 1929)<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm346200640\" class=\"\">After a brief stint as an unemployed college graduate, Thorstein Veblen began to study the economy through a social lens, writing about the leisure class, the business class, and other areas that touched on the idea of \u2018working\u2019 itself. He researched the chronically unemployed, the currently unemployed, the working classes, and the working classes.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm383142688\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">Jane Addams (1860-1935)<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm370285936\" class=\"\">Jane Addams founded\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Hull House<\/em>, a center that served needy immigrants through social and educational programs while providing extensive opportunities for sociological research. Founded in Chicago, Addams worked closely with University of Chicago\u2019s Chicago School of Sociology. This school of thought places much importance on environment in which relationships and behaviors develop. Research conducted at Hull House informed child labor, immigration, health care, and other areas of public policy.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm346408512\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm377217056\" class=\"\">Charles Horton Cooley posited that individuals compare themselves to others in order to check themselves against social standards and remain part of the group. Calling this idea \u2018the looking-glass self,\u2019 Cooley argued that we \u2018see\u2019 ourselves by the reactions of others with whom we interact. If someone reacts positively to our behavior, theoretically we will continue that behavior. He wrote substantially on what he saw as the order of life in\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Human Nature and the Social Order<\/em>\u00a0(1902) followed by\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Social Organization<\/em>\u00a0in 1909. He was very concerned with the increasing individualism and competitiveness of US society, fearing it would disrupt families as primary groups lost their importance.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm379326096\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">George Herbert Mead (1863\u20131931)<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm373097216\" class=\"\">George Herbert Mead was a philosopher and sociologist whose work focused on the ways in which the mind and the self were developed as a result of social processes (Cronk, n.d.). He argued that how an individual comes to view himself or herself is based to a very large extent on interactions with others. Though Mead adopted Cooley\u2019s concept of \u2018looking-glasses,\u2019 Mead felt that an individual\u2019s reaction to a positive or negative reflection depended on who the \u2018other\u2019 was. Individuals that had the greatest impact on a person\u2019s life were\u00a0<span id=\"term12\" data-type=\"term\">significant others<\/span>\u00a0while\u00a0<span id=\"term13\" data-type=\"term\">generalized others<\/span>\u00a0were the organized and generalized attitude of a social group. Mead often shares the title of father of symbolic interactionism with Cooley and Erving Goffman.<\/p>\n<section id=\"eip-id1169402148869\">\n<h3>Ida B. Wells-Barnett (1862-1931)<\/h3>\n<div id=\"attachment_4056\" style=\"width: 220px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4056\" class=\"wp-image-4056 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/17160723\/Mary_Garrity_-_Ida_B._Wells-Barnett_-_Google_Art_Project_-_restoration_crop-210x300.jpg\" alt=\"Ida B. Wells in an old photograph.\" width=\"210\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4056\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 5<\/strong>. Ida B. Wells was a revolutionary teacher and journalist who brought many sociological issues to light, particularly racial and gender inequalities.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Ida B. Wells was <\/span>born into slavery in M<span style=\"color: #333333;\">ississippi to parents were freed after the Civil War and who went on to be politically active during Reconstruction (1865-1877). Wells&#8217; parents and younger brother died during a yellow fever epidemic in 1878 when she was just 16 years old. She became a teacher in a Black elementary school (Wells attended some college prior to her parents&#8217; deaths) so that her five other siblings would not be separated and sent to foster homes<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;Ida B. Wells biography,&quot; accessed September 10, 2018, A&amp;E Television Networks. https:\/\/www.biography.com\/people\/ida-b-wells-9527635\" id=\"return-footnote-33-1\" href=\"#footnote-33-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a>. She relocated from Mississippi to Memphis, Tennessee to earn higher wages, and to pursue further education.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">In 1884, when Wells was just 24 years old, she refused to give up her seat in a first-class ladies train car and was subsequently dragged from the car by the conductor and two men. After being criminally charged, Wells fought the case all the way to the Tennessee Supreme Court, based on the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which banned racial discrimination in public accommodations. Although Wells lost after the Supreme Court overturned the lower court&#8217;s decision, her passion for equality and social justice only became stronger and more influential. (Her direct action would be echoed by Rosa Parks&#8217; civil disobedience 71 years later.) In 1891, she was fired from her teaching job for criticizing the quality of Blacks-only schools in Memphis and thus began a new career in journalism, starting at\u00a0the\u00a0<i>Memphis Free Speech and Headlight<\/i>\u00a0newspaper, which she later co-owned.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">After the lynching of three of her friends in 1892, Wells became one of the nation\u2019s most vocal anti-lynching activists. She<\/span><span style=\"color: #333333;\">\u00a0launched\u00a0an extensive investigation of lynching and published her findings in a pamphlet titled \u201cSouthern Horrors: Lynch Law in all its Phases,\u201d in 1892<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Steptoe, Tyina (2007). Ida Wells Barnett. BlackPast. Retrieved from\u00a0https:\/\/www.blackpast.org\/african-american-history\/barnett-ida-wells-1862-1931\/\" id=\"return-footnote-33-2\" href=\"#footnote-33-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a>. Wells exposed lynching as a barbaric practice of whites in the South used to intimidate and oppress African Americans who represented economic and political competition\u2014and a subsequent threat to entrenched, hierarchical power\u2014for whites. A white mob eventually destroyed her newspaper office and presses, though this did not stifle her voice or prevent her investigative reporting from finding a national audience, particularly through a distribution network of Black-owned newspapers.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"eip-id1169402148869\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Wells was one of the founding members of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1908, but her name was left off the list of founding members. She also worked to have full inclusion for Black women in the Women&#8217;s Suffrage Movement and participated in the 1913 Suffrage March in front of the White House. <\/span><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Although not formally trained as an academic sociologist, Wells was the epitome of a public sociologist because she examined racial and gender inequalities and made them public issues. In <em>Southern Horrors:\u00a0 Lynch Laws in All Its Phases <\/em>she stated,\u00a0&#8220;The people must know before they can act, and there is no educator to compare with the press&#8221; (1892). This forward-thinking statement is one of her many legacies in sociology.\u00a0<\/span><\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm376325712\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h4 data-type=\"title\">Robert E. Park (1864-1944)<\/h4>\n<p id=\"fs-idm372148112\" class=\"\">Robert E. Park is best known as the founder of social ecology. Attached to the Chicago School, Park focused on how individuals lived within their environment. One of the first sociologists to focus on ethnic minorities, he wrote on the Belgian oppression of the Congolese. When he returned to the US, he and Ernest Burgess researched the inner city to show that no matter who lived there, social chaos was prevalent. As such, it was not the residents who caused the chaos but the environment.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033124106\">\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033100995\" class=\"short-answer\">\n<div id=\"fs-id1169033100582\" class=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-id1169033070594\" class=\"problem\">\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Further Research<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1773704\">Many sociologists helped shape the discipline. To learn more about prominent sociologists and how they changed sociology check out<a href=\"http:\/\/www.macionis.com\/resources-for-change\/profiles-of-powerful-sociologists\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u00a0Profiles of Powerful Sociologists<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_16fb9ed6-ae33-47b8-be51-9f600cf52bc4\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/16fb9ed6-ae33-47b8-be51-9f600cf52bc4?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_16fb9ed6-ae33-47b8-be51-9f600cf52bc4\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_dc7659f1-a3e7-4c43-b519-cdd3d51d2f84\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/dc7659f1-a3e7-4c43-b519-cdd3d51d2f84?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_dc7659f1-a3e7-4c43-b519-cdd3d51d2f84\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_41790bc5-570d-4423-b4d7-40bf28c02bad\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/41790bc5-570d-4423-b4d7-40bf28c02bad?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_41790bc5-570d-4423-b4d7-40bf28c02bad\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_b0881c3d-d371-4483-a99c-8b623d56deca\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/b0881c3d-d371-4483-a99c-8b623d56deca?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_b0881c3d-d371-4483-a99c-8b623d56deca\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<div id=\"fs-id1169033101000\" class=\"exercise\">\n<section>\n<div id=\"fs-id1169033065393\" class=\"problem\">\n<ul>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id2866120\">What do you make of Karl Marx\u2019s contributions to sociology? What perceptions of Marx have you been exposed to in your society, and how do those perceptions influence your views?<\/li>\n<li>Ida B. Wells emphasized the importance of the press 100 years ago as an educational tool. In what ways does this statement hold true today? How might one disagree that no teacher can compare with the press?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1383216\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>antipositivism:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1169033063495\">the view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-id1169568155294\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>generalized others:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1169584333746\">the organized and generalized attitude of a social group<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2110123\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>positivism:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1169033103199\">the scientific study of social patterns<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1361826\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>qualitative sociology:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id2483726\">in-depth interviews, focus groups, and\/or analysis of content sources as the source of its data<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-id2648958\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>quantitative sociology:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1169033060465\">statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-id1166175011306\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>significant others:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1166168628826\">specific individuals that impact a person&#8217;s life<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1205323\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>verstehen:<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1169033069059\">a German word that means to understand in a deep way<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-33\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sarah Hoiland for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>The History of Sociology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax CNX. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@11.2:gpZqu-uw@14\/The-History-of-Sociology\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@11.2:gpZqu-uw@14\/The-History-of-Sociology<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49<\/li><li>Ida B. Wells Barnett. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Mary Garrity, 1893. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/images.google.com\/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org%2Fwikipedia%2Fcommons%2Ff%2Ffd%2FMary_Garrity_-_Ida_B._Wells-Barnett_-_Google_Art_Project_-_restoration_crop.jpg&#038;imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FIda_B._Wells&#038;docid=EKwQwNXPuwVvpM&#038;tbnid=fH5AGOMlSVCXEM%3A&#038;vet=1&#038;w=2673&#038;h=3818&#038;source=sh%2Fx%2Fim\">https:\/\/images.google.com\/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org%2Fwikipedia%2Fcommons%2Ff%2Ffd%2FMary_Garrity_-_Ida_B._Wells-Barnett_-_Google_Art_Project_-_restoration_crop.jpg&#038;imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FIda_B._Wells&#038;docid=EKwQwNXPuwVvpM&#038;tbnid=fH5AGOMlSVCXEM%3A&#038;vet=1&#038;w=2673&#038;h=3818&#038;source=sh%2Fx%2Fim<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Section on Ida B. Wells. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ida_B._Wells\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ida_B._Wells<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Sociologists. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/introduction-sociology-3e\/pages\/1-2-the-history-of-sociology\">https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/introduction-sociology-3e\/pages\/1-2-the-history-of-sociology<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Sociology 3e. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/introduction-sociology-3e\/pages\/1-introduction<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-33-1\">\"Ida B. Wells biography,\" accessed September 10, 2018, A&amp;E Television Networks. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.biography.com\/people\/ida-b-wells-9527635\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.biography.com\/people\/ida-b-wells-9527635<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-33-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-33-2\"> Steptoe, Tyina (2007). Ida Wells Barnett. BlackPast. Retrieved from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.blackpast.org\/african-american-history\/barnett-ida-wells-1862-1931\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.blackpast.org\/african-american-history\/barnett-ida-wells-1862-1931\/<\/a><\/span><span style=\"color: #333333;\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-33-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"The History of Sociology\",\"author\":\"OpenStax CNX\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@11.2:gpZqu-uw@14\/The-History-of-Sociology\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Sarah Hoiland for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Ida B. Wells Barnett\",\"author\":\"Mary Garrity, 1893\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/images.google.com\/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org%2Fwikipedia%2Fcommons%2Ff%2Ffd%2FMary_Garrity_-_Ida_B._Wells-Barnett_-_Google_Art_Project_-_restoration_crop.jpg&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FIda_B._Wells&docid=EKwQwNXPuwVvpM&tbnid=fH5AGOMlSVCXEM%3A&vet=1&w=2673&h=3818&source=sh%2Fx%2Fim\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Section on Ida B. 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