{"id":683,"date":"2016-04-26T11:50:50","date_gmt":"2016-04-26T11:50:50","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontosociology-waymaker\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=683"},"modified":"2024-04-25T03:43:24","modified_gmt":"2024-04-25T03:43:24","slug":"experiments","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/chapter\/experiments\/","title":{"raw":"Experiments","rendered":"Experiments"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe and give examples of how sociologists utilize experiments<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Experiments<\/h2>\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">You\u2019ve probably tested\u00a0some of your own\u00a0theories: \u201cIf I study at night and review in the morning, I\u2019ll improve my retention skills.\u201d Or, \u201cIf I stop drinking soda, I\u2019ll feel better.\u201d Cause and effect. If this, then that. Causation is difficult to establish, so even if we seem to find evidence in our own lives that appears to prove our hypotheses, this is not sociological research nor is it evidence of causation. Sociologists set up specific studies in controlled environments in order to examine relationships between variables. Some studies are correlational, meaning they examine how two variables change together, while others are experimental, meaning they use controlled conditions to attempt to explain cause and effect.\u00a0The primary difference between our everyday observations and sociological research is the systematic approach researchers use to collect data.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\n<strong>E<\/strong><b>xperiments <\/b>aim to measure the relationship of the independent variable to the dependent variable, and the researcher or research team will attempt to control all o<span style=\"color: #333333;\">ther variables in the experimental process. This is often done in a lab-based setting, but can also be done as a field experiment.\u00a0As discussed in the section on ethics, there are many considerations to address before\u00a0<em>any\u00a0<\/em>experimental work can occur. Sociologists must obtain approval from a review board (sometimes called an Internal Review Board or IRB) before they commence any type of sociological experiment.<\/span>\r\n<h3>Lab Settings<\/h3>\r\nIn a lab setting, the research can be controlled so that perhaps more data can be recorded in a certain amount of time. To set up a lab-based experiment, sociologists create artificial situations that allow them to manipulate variables. Classically, the sociologist selects a set of people with similar characteristics, such as age, class, race, or education. Those people are divided into two groups. One is the experimental group and the other is the\u00a0control group. The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable(s) and the control group is not. This is similar to pharmaceutical drug trials in which the experimental group is given the test drug and the control group is given a placebo or sugar pill. To test the benefits of tutoring, for example, the sociologist might expose the experimental group of students to tutoring while the control group does not receive tutoring. Then both groups would be tested for differences in performance to see if tutoring had an effect on the experimental group of students. As you can imagine, in a case like this, the researcher would not want to jeopardize the accomplishments of either group of students, so the setting would be somewhat artificial. The test would not be for a grade reflected on their permanent record, for example.\r\n<h3>Natural or Field-Based Experiments<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm386460272\" class=\" \">In a natural or field-based experiment, the generation of data cannot be controlled, but the information might be considered more accurate since it was collected without interference or intervention by the researcher. As a research method, either type of sociological experiment is useful for testing <i>if-then<\/i> statements: <i>if<\/i> a particular thing happens, <i>then<\/i> another particular thing will result.<\/p>\r\n<span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Sociologists Devah Pager, Bruce Western, and Bart Bonikowski wanted to examine discrimination in the low-wage job market. <\/span><span style=\"color: #ff0000;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">They recruited<\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #333333;\">\u00a0white, Black, and Latino \"testers,\" who were assigned equivalent r\u00e9sum\u00e9s and who were matched on a variety of characteristics such as age, education, physical appearance, and interpersonal skills. The testers applied to real job openings and recorded responses from employers. Because B<\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #333333;\">lack and white testers were sent to the same firms, and testers were matched on a wide variety of characteristics, \"much of the unexplained variation that confounds residual estimates of discrimination [was] experimentally controlled\"\u00a0[footnote]Pager, D., Western, B. and B. Bonikowski. 2009. \"Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market:\u00a0 A Field Experiment.\" American Sociological Review. Vol. 74 (October:\u00a0 777-799). [\/footnote]\u00a0The testers were college-educated males that comprised field teams that included a white, Latino, and Black tester; the Latino testers spoke in unaccented English and were U.S. citizens of Puerto Rican descent and claimed no Spanish language ability. They also examined the effect of a criminal record (felony drug offense) for different racial groups in job applications, building upon Pager's research in 2003. Some r\u00e9sum\u00e9s included a checked box to indicate a felony conviction and also listed prison labor as part of the applicant's employment history. The teams\u00a0applied for 340 real entry-level jobs throughout New York City over nine months in 2004.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">As with many of the most insightful sociological studies, Pager, Western &amp; Bonikowski included qualitative data based on the testers' interactions with employers, which provided a rich supplement to the empirical data acquired through this field experiment. Like Matthew Desmond's multi-method approach to evictions (empirical\u2014 secondary resources; interpretive\u2014ethnography), we see a similar approach here (empirical\u2014field experiment; interpretive\u2014testers' narratives of interactions with employers).\u00a0In this study, Blacks were only half as likely to receive a callback or job offer, and whites, Blacks, and Latinos with clean criminal backgrounds were no more likely to receive a callback as a white applicant just released from prison. Moreover, the testers did not perceive any signs of clear prejudice (Pager, Western, &amp; Bonikowski, 2009).\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Sociologists have long been interested in inequality and discrimination. Read the study below to see how one sociology professor sent her students to the field.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>An Experiment in Action<\/h3>\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"325\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204134\/Figure_02_02_08.jpg\" alt=\"The image shows a state police car that has pulled over another car near a highway exit.\" width=\"325\" height=\"301\" \/> <strong>Figure 1.<\/strong> Sociologist Frances Heussenstamm conducted an experiment to explore the correlation between traffic stops and race-based bumper stickers. This issue of racial profiling remains a hot-button topic today. (Photo courtesy of dwightsghost\/flickr)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nA real-life example will help illustrate the experiment process. In 1971, Frances Heussenstamm, a sociology professor at California State University, Los Angeles, had a theory about police prejudice. To test her theory she conducted an experiment. She chose fifteen students from three ethnic backgrounds: Black, white, and Latino. She chose students who routinely drove to and from campus along Los Angeles freeway routes, and who\u2019d had perfect driving records for longer than a year. Those were her control variables\u2014students, good driving records, same commute route. These students signed all had safe, up-to-date cars and signed a pledge to drive safely.\r\n\r\nNext, she placed a Black Panther bumper sticker on each car. That sticker, a representation of a social value, was the independent variable. Founded in Oakland, California in 1966, the Black Panthers were a revolutionary African-American group actively fighting racism. Heussenstamm asked the students to follow their normal driving patterns. She wanted to see whether seeming to support the Black Panthers would change how these good drivers were treated by the police patrolling the highways (the dependent variable).\r\n\r\nThe first citation, for an incorrect lane change, was made two hours after the experiment began. One participant was pulled over three times in three days. He quit the study. After seventeen days, the fifteen drivers had collected a total of thirty-three traffic citations and the funding to pay traffic fines had run out. The experiment was halted (Heussenstamm 1971).\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/342b44ad-fce0-4fe0-b3ff-f6dd81ceedc2\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Do the findings in the\u00a0Pager, Western &amp; Bonikowski field experiment surprise you? Why or why not? In what ways can studies about discrimination inform public policy?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">What kinds of ethical issues are present in Heussenstamm's experiment? Were some students at greater risk than others? How do you think the experiences of each group (Black, white, and Latino) differed? Do you think gender would influence the interaction between student and police officer?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Imagine your sociology professor asked you to place a \"Black Lives Matter\" bumper sticker on your vehicle and asked you to sign an informed consent before participating in the study. Would you do it? Why or why not? How does geographic location and personal identity affect one's experience and potential risk factors?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]experiment:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the testing of a hypothesis under controlled conditions;\u00a0tests a\u00a0hypothesis to determine cause and effect relationships[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe and give examples of how sociologists utilize experiments<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Experiments<\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">You\u2019ve probably tested\u00a0some of your own\u00a0theories: \u201cIf I study at night and review in the morning, I\u2019ll improve my retention skills.\u201d Or, \u201cIf I stop drinking soda, I\u2019ll feel better.\u201d Cause and effect. If this, then that. Causation is difficult to establish, so even if we seem to find evidence in our own lives that appears to prove our hypotheses, this is not sociological research nor is it evidence of causation. Sociologists set up specific studies in controlled environments in order to examine relationships between variables. Some studies are correlational, meaning they examine how two variables change together, while others are experimental, meaning they use controlled conditions to attempt to explain cause and effect.\u00a0The primary difference between our everyday observations and sociological research is the systematic approach researchers use to collect data.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><strong>E<\/strong><b>xperiments <\/b>aim to measure the relationship of the independent variable to the dependent variable, and the researcher or research team will attempt to control all o<span style=\"color: #333333;\">ther variables in the experimental process. This is often done in a lab-based setting, but can also be done as a field experiment.\u00a0As discussed in the section on ethics, there are many considerations to address before\u00a0<em>any\u00a0<\/em>experimental work can occur. Sociologists must obtain approval from a review board (sometimes called an Internal Review Board or IRB) before they commence any type of sociological experiment.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3>Lab Settings<\/h3>\n<p>In a lab setting, the research can be controlled so that perhaps more data can be recorded in a certain amount of time. To set up a lab-based experiment, sociologists create artificial situations that allow them to manipulate variables. Classically, the sociologist selects a set of people with similar characteristics, such as age, class, race, or education. Those people are divided into two groups. One is the experimental group and the other is the\u00a0control group. The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable(s) and the control group is not. This is similar to pharmaceutical drug trials in which the experimental group is given the test drug and the control group is given a placebo or sugar pill. To test the benefits of tutoring, for example, the sociologist might expose the experimental group of students to tutoring while the control group does not receive tutoring. Then both groups would be tested for differences in performance to see if tutoring had an effect on the experimental group of students. As you can imagine, in a case like this, the researcher would not want to jeopardize the accomplishments of either group of students, so the setting would be somewhat artificial. The test would not be for a grade reflected on their permanent record, for example.<\/p>\n<h3>Natural or Field-Based Experiments<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm386460272\" class=\"\">In a natural or field-based experiment, the generation of data cannot be controlled, but the information might be considered more accurate since it was collected without interference or intervention by the researcher. As a research method, either type of sociological experiment is useful for testing <i>if-then<\/i> statements: <i>if<\/i> a particular thing happens, <i>then<\/i> another particular thing will result.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Sociologists Devah Pager, Bruce Western, and Bart Bonikowski wanted to examine discrimination in the low-wage job market. <\/span><span style=\"color: #ff0000;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">They recruited<\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #333333;\">\u00a0white, Black, and Latino &#8220;testers,&#8221; who were assigned equivalent r\u00e9sum\u00e9s and who were matched on a variety of characteristics such as age, education, physical appearance, and interpersonal skills. The testers applied to real job openings and recorded responses from employers. Because B<\/span><\/span><span style=\"color: #333333;\">lack and white testers were sent to the same firms, and testers were matched on a wide variety of characteristics, &#8220;much of the unexplained variation that confounds residual estimates of discrimination [was] experimentally controlled&#8221;\u00a0<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Pager, D., Western, B. and B. Bonikowski. 2009. &quot;Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market:\u00a0 A Field Experiment.&quot; American Sociological Review. Vol. 74 (October:\u00a0 777-799).\" id=\"return-footnote-683-1\" href=\"#footnote-683-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0The testers were college-educated males that comprised field teams that included a white, Latino, and Black tester; the Latino testers spoke in unaccented English and were U.S. citizens of Puerto Rican descent and claimed no Spanish language ability. They also examined the effect of a criminal record (felony drug offense) for different racial groups in job applications, building upon Pager&#8217;s research in 2003. Some r\u00e9sum\u00e9s included a checked box to indicate a felony conviction and also listed prison labor as part of the applicant&#8217;s employment history. The teams\u00a0applied for 340 real entry-level jobs throughout New York City over nine months in 2004.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">As with many of the most insightful sociological studies, Pager, Western &amp; Bonikowski included qualitative data based on the testers&#8217; interactions with employers, which provided a rich supplement to the empirical data acquired through this field experiment. Like Matthew Desmond&#8217;s multi-method approach to evictions (empirical\u2014 secondary resources; interpretive\u2014ethnography), we see a similar approach here (empirical\u2014field experiment; interpretive\u2014testers&#8217; narratives of interactions with employers).\u00a0In this study, Blacks were only half as likely to receive a callback or job offer, and whites, Blacks, and Latinos with clean criminal backgrounds were no more likely to receive a callback as a white applicant just released from prison. Moreover, the testers did not perceive any signs of clear prejudice (Pager, Western, &amp; Bonikowski, 2009).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Sociologists have long been interested in inequality and discrimination. Read the study below to see how one sociology professor sent her students to the field.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>An Experiment in Action<\/h3>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 335px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204134\/Figure_02_02_08.jpg\" alt=\"The image shows a state police car that has pulled over another car near a highway exit.\" width=\"325\" height=\"301\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1.<\/strong> Sociologist Frances Heussenstamm conducted an experiment to explore the correlation between traffic stops and race-based bumper stickers. This issue of racial profiling remains a hot-button topic today. (Photo courtesy of dwightsghost\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>A real-life example will help illustrate the experiment process. In 1971, Frances Heussenstamm, a sociology professor at California State University, Los Angeles, had a theory about police prejudice. To test her theory she conducted an experiment. She chose fifteen students from three ethnic backgrounds: Black, white, and Latino. She chose students who routinely drove to and from campus along Los Angeles freeway routes, and who\u2019d had perfect driving records for longer than a year. Those were her control variables\u2014students, good driving records, same commute route. These students signed all had safe, up-to-date cars and signed a pledge to drive safely.<\/p>\n<p>Next, she placed a Black Panther bumper sticker on each car. That sticker, a representation of a social value, was the independent variable. Founded in Oakland, California in 1966, the Black Panthers were a revolutionary African-American group actively fighting racism. Heussenstamm asked the students to follow their normal driving patterns. She wanted to see whether seeming to support the Black Panthers would change how these good drivers were treated by the police patrolling the highways (the dependent variable).<\/p>\n<p>The first citation, for an incorrect lane change, was made two hours after the experiment began. One participant was pulled over three times in three days. He quit the study. After seventeen days, the fifteen drivers had collected a total of thirty-three traffic citations and the funding to pay traffic fines had run out. The experiment was halted (Heussenstamm 1971).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_342b44ad-fce0-4fe0-b3ff-f6dd81ceedc2\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/342b44ad-fce0-4fe0-b3ff-f6dd81ceedc2?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_342b44ad-fce0-4fe0-b3ff-f6dd81ceedc2\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<section>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Do the findings in the\u00a0Pager, Western &amp; Bonikowski field experiment surprise you? Why or why not? In what ways can studies about discrimination inform public policy?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">What kinds of ethical issues are present in Heussenstamm&#8217;s experiment? Were some students at greater risk than others? How do you think the experiences of each group (Black, white, and Latino) differed? Do you think gender would influence the interaction between student and police officer?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Imagine your sociology professor asked you to place a &#8220;Black Lives Matter&#8221; bumper sticker on your vehicle and asked you to sign an informed consent before participating in the study. Would you do it? Why or why not? How does geographic location and personal identity affect one&#8217;s experience and potential risk factors?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>experiment:<\/dt>\n<dd>the testing of a hypothesis under controlled conditions;\u00a0tests a\u00a0hypothesis to determine cause and effect relationships<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-683\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sarah Hoiland for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Research Methods. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax CNX. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@11.2:5y6RWnGd@14\/Research-Methods\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@11.2:5y6RWnGd@14\/Research-Methods<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49<\/li><li>Additional material on Stanford Prison Experiment. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: William Little. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: BC Campus. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/introductiontosociology\/chapter\/chapter2-sociological-research\/\">https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/introductiontosociology\/chapter\/chapter2-sociological-research\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-683-1\">Pager, D., Western, B. and B. Bonikowski. 2009. \"Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market:\u00a0 A Field Experiment.\" American Sociological Review. Vol. 74 (October:\u00a0 777-799).  <a href=\"#return-footnote-683-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":8,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Research Methods\",\"author\":\"OpenStax CNX\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@11.2:5y6RWnGd@14\/Research-Methods\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Sarah Hoiland for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Additional material on Stanford Prison Experiment\",\"author\":\"William Little\",\"organization\":\"BC Campus\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/introductiontosociology\/chapter\/chapter2-sociological-research\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"6c29aca9-6344-4d3d-805c-b8a76e8943fe, 2ed3f861-eb3a-488f-b795-84a3d826bdfb","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-683","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3539,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/683","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":36,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/683\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9408,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/683\/revisions\/9408"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3539"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/683\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=683"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=683"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=683"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=683"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}