{"id":109,"date":"2014-09-16T21:33:00","date_gmt":"2014-09-16T21:33:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/lifespandevelopment1x1\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=109"},"modified":"2024-04-29T23:09:19","modified_gmt":"2024-04-29T23:09:19","slug":"conducting-research-in-lifespan-development","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/chapter\/conducting-research-in-lifespan-development\/","title":{"raw":"Research in Lifespan Development","rendered":"Research in Lifespan Development"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain how the scientific method is used in researching development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Compare various types and objectives of developmental research<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>How do we know what we know?<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_706\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"wp-image-706 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2016\/03\/15023037\/question-mark-1098294_1280-300x300.jpg\" alt=\"A question mark.\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Scientific inquiry and questioning is critical in drawing conclusions about human development.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAn important part of learning any science is having a basic knowledge of the techniques used in gathering information.\u00a0The hallmark of scientific investigation is that of following a set of procedures designed to keep questioning or skepticism alive while describing, explaining, or testing any phenomenon.\u00a0Not long ago a friend said to me that he did not trust academicians or researchers because they always seem to change their story.\u00a0That, however, is exactly what science is all about; it involves continuously renewing our understanding of the subjects in question and an ongoing investigation of how and why events occur.\u00a0Science is a vehicle for going on a never-ending journey.\u00a0In the area of development, we have seen changes in recommendations for nutrition, in explanations of psychological states as people age, and in parenting advice.\u00a0So think of learning about human development as a lifelong endeavor.\r\n<h3>Personal Knowledge<\/h3>\r\nHow do we know what we know?\u00a0Take a moment to write down two things that you know about childhood. Okay.\u00a0Now, how do you know?\u00a0Chances are you know these things based on your own history (experiential reality), what others have told you, or cultural ideas (agreement reality) (Seccombe and Warner, 2004).\u00a0There are several problems with personal inquiry, or\u00a0drawing conclusions based on our personal experiences.\u00a0Read the following sentence aloud:\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 60px;\"><span style=\"text-indent: 2em;\">Paris in the<\/span>\r\n<span style=\"text-indent: 2em;\">the spring<\/span><\/p>\r\nAre you sure that is what it said?\u00a0Read it again:\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 60px;\"><span style=\"text-indent: 2em;\">Paris in the<\/span>\r\n<span style=\"text-indent: 2em;\">the spring<\/span><\/p>\r\nIf you read it differently the second time (adding the second \u201cthe\u201d) you just experienced one of the problems with relying on personal inquiry; that is, the tendency to see what we believe.\u00a0Our assumptions very often guide our perceptions, consequently, when we believe something, we tend to see it even if it is not there. Have you heard the saying, \"seeing is believing\"? Well, the truth is just the opposite: believing is seeing. This problem may just be a result of cognitive \u2018blinders\u2019 or it may be part of a more conscious attempt to support our own views.\u00a0Confirmation bias\u00a0is the tendency to look for evidence that we are right and in so doing, we ignore contradictory evidence.\r\n\r\nPhilosopher Karl Popper suggested that the distinction between that which is scientific and that which is unscientific is that science is falsifiable; scientific inquiry involves attempts to reject or refute a theory or set of assumptions (Thornton, 2005). A theory that cannot be falsified is not scientific.\u00a0And much of what we do in personal inquiry involves drawing conclusions based on what we have personally experienced or validating our own experience by discussing what we think is true with others who share the same views.\r\n\r\nScience offers a more systematic way to make comparisons and guard against bias.\u00a0One technique used to avoid\u00a0sampling bias\u00a0is to select participants for a study in a random way.\u00a0This means using a technique to ensure that all members have an equal chance of being selected.\u00a0Simple random sampling\u00a0may involve using a set of random numbers as a guide in determining who is to be selected.\u00a0For example, if we have a list of 400 people and wish to randomly select a smaller group or\u00a0sample\u00a0to be studied, we use a list of random numbers and select the case that corresponds with that number (Case 39, 3, 217, etc.).\u00a0This is preferable to asking only those individuals with whom we are familiar to participate in a study; if we conveniently chose only people we know, we know nothing about those who had no opportunity to be selected.\u00a0There are many more elaborate techniques that can be used to obtain samples that represent the composition of the population we are studying.\u00a0But even though a randomly selected representative sample is preferable, it is not always used because of costs and other limitations. As a consumer of research, however, you should know how the sample was obtained and keep this in mind when interpreting results. It is possible that what was found was limited to that sample or similar individuals and not generalizable to everyone else.\r\n<h2>Scientific Methods<\/h2>\r\nThe particular method used to conduct research may vary by discipline and since lifespan development is multidisciplinary, more than one method may be used to study human development. One method of scientific investigation involves the following steps:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Determining a research question<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Reviewing previous studies addressing the topic in question (known as a literature review)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Determining a method of gathering information<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Conducting the study<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Interpreting the results<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Drawing conclusions; stating limitations of the study and suggestions for future research<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Making the findings available to others (both to share information and to have the work scrutinized by others)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe findings of these scientific studies can then be used by others as they explore the area of interest. Through this process, a literature or knowledge base is established.\u00a0This model of scientific investigation presents research as a linear process guided by a specific research question.\u00a0And it typically involves <strong>quantitative research<\/strong>, which relies on numerical data or using statistics to understand and report what has been studied.\r\n\r\nAnother model of research, referred to as <strong>qualitative research,<\/strong> may involve steps such as these:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Begin with a broad area of interest and a research question<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Gain entrance into a group to be researched<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Gather field notes about the setting, the people, the structure, the activities or other areas of interest<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ask open-ended, broad \u201cgrand tour\u201d types of questions when interviewing subjects<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Modify research questions as the study continues<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Note patterns or consistencies<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explore new areas deemed important by the people being observed<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Report findings<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIn this type of research, theoretical ideas are \u201cgrounded\u201d in the experiences of the participants.\u00a0The researcher is the student and the people in the setting are the teachers as they inform the researcher of their world (Glazer &amp; Strauss, 1967).\u00a0Researchers should be aware of their own biases and assumptions, acknowledge them and bracket them in efforts to keep them from limiting accuracy in reporting. Sometimes qualitative studies are used initially to explore a topic and more quantitative studies are used to test or explain what was first described.\r\n\r\nA good way to become more familiar with these scientific research methods, both quantitative and qualitative, is to look at journal articles, which are written in sections that follow these steps in the scientific process. Most psychological articles and many papers in the social sciences follow the writing guidelines and format dictated by the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/section\/2\/10\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">American Psychological Association<\/a>\u00a0(APA). In general, the structure follows: abstract (summary of the article), introduction or literature review, methods explaining how the study was conducted, results of the study, discussion and interpretation of findings, and references.\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nBren\u00e9 Brown is a bestselling author and social work professor at the University of Houston. She conducts grounded theory research by collecting <em>qualitative<\/em> data from large numbers of participants. In <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?time_continue=177&amp;v=iCvmsMzlF7o\">Bren\u00e9 Brown's TED Talk The Power of Vulnerability<\/a>, Brown refers to herself as a storyteller-researcher as she explains her research process and summarizes her results.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/a039085f-3afd-4541-b436-7dbb52f3598e\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Research Methods and Objectives<\/h2>\r\nThe main categories of psychological research are descriptive, correlational, and experimental research.\u00a0Research studies that do not test specific relationships between variables are called\u00a0<strong>descriptive, or qualitative, studies<\/strong>. These studies are used to describe general or specific behaviors and attributes that are observed and measured. In the early stages of research it might be difficult to form a hypothesis, especially when there is not any existing literature in the area. In these situations designing an experiment would be premature, as the question of interest is not yet clearly defined as a hypothesis. Often a researcher will begin with a non-experimental approach, such as a descriptive study, to gather more information about the topic before designing an experiment or correlational study to address a specific hypothesis.\u00a0Some examples of descriptive questions include:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>\u201cHow much time do parents spend with children?\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li>\u201cHow many times per week do couples have intercourse?\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li>\u201cWhen is marital satisfaction greatest?\u201d<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe main types of descriptive studies include observation, case studies, surveys, and content analysis (which we'll examine further in the module). Descriptive research is distinct from\u00a0<strong>correlational research<\/strong>, in which psychologists formally test whether a relationship exists between two or more variables.\u00a0<strong>Experimental research<\/strong>\u00a0goes a step further beyond descriptive and correlational research and randomly assigns people to different conditions, using hypothesis testing to make inferences about how these conditions affect behavior. Some experimental research includes <strong>explanatory<\/strong> studies, which\u00a0are efforts to answer the question \u201cwhy\u201d such as:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>\u201cWhy have rates of divorce leveled off?\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li>\u201cWhy are teen pregnancy rates down?\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li>\"Why has the average life expectancy increased?\"<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>Evaluation research<\/strong>\u00a0is designed to assess the effectiveness of policies or programs.\u00a0For instance, research might be designed to study the effectiveness of safety programs implemented in schools for installing car seats or fitting bicycle helmets.\u00a0Do children who have been exposed to the safety programs wear their helmets?\u00a0Do parents use car seats properly?\u00a0If not, why not?\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>watch it<\/h3>\r\nThis Crash Course video provides a brief overview of psychological research, which we'll cover in more detail on the coming pages.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hFV71QPvX2I\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/PsychologicalResearchCrashCoursePsychology2_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"Psychological Research: Crash Course Psychology #2\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/3ca16424-41d0-4dbc-a762-c37c5bcddb72\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>GLOSSARY<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]correlational research:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]research that formally tests whether a relationship exists between two or more variables, however, correlation does not imply causation[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]descriptive studies:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]research focused on describing an occurrence[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]evaluation research:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]research designed to assess the effectiveness of policies or programs[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]experimental research:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]research that involves randomly assigning people to different conditions and using hypothesis testing to make inferences about how these conditions affect behavior; the only method that measures cause and effect between variables[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]explanatory studies:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]research that tries to answer the question \u201cwhy\u201d[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]qualitative research:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]theoretical ideas are \u201cgrounded\u201d in the experiences of the participants, who answer open-ended questions[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]quantitative research:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]involves numerical data that are quantified using statistics to understand and report what has been studied[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain how the scientific method is used in researching development<\/li>\n<li>Compare various types and objectives of developmental research<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>How do we know what we know?<\/h2>\n<div id=\"attachment_706\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-706\" class=\"wp-image-706 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2016\/03\/15023037\/question-mark-1098294_1280-300x300.jpg\" alt=\"A question mark.\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-706\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Scientific inquiry and questioning is critical in drawing conclusions about human development.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>An important part of learning any science is having a basic knowledge of the techniques used in gathering information.\u00a0The hallmark of scientific investigation is that of following a set of procedures designed to keep questioning or skepticism alive while describing, explaining, or testing any phenomenon.\u00a0Not long ago a friend said to me that he did not trust academicians or researchers because they always seem to change their story.\u00a0That, however, is exactly what science is all about; it involves continuously renewing our understanding of the subjects in question and an ongoing investigation of how and why events occur.\u00a0Science is a vehicle for going on a never-ending journey.\u00a0In the area of development, we have seen changes in recommendations for nutrition, in explanations of psychological states as people age, and in parenting advice.\u00a0So think of learning about human development as a lifelong endeavor.<\/p>\n<h3>Personal Knowledge<\/h3>\n<p>How do we know what we know?\u00a0Take a moment to write down two things that you know about childhood. Okay.\u00a0Now, how do you know?\u00a0Chances are you know these things based on your own history (experiential reality), what others have told you, or cultural ideas (agreement reality) (Seccombe and Warner, 2004).\u00a0There are several problems with personal inquiry, or\u00a0drawing conclusions based on our personal experiences.\u00a0Read the following sentence aloud:<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 60px;\"><span style=\"text-indent: 2em;\">Paris in the<\/span><br \/>\n<span style=\"text-indent: 2em;\">the spring<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Are you sure that is what it said?\u00a0Read it again:<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 60px;\"><span style=\"text-indent: 2em;\">Paris in the<\/span><br \/>\n<span style=\"text-indent: 2em;\">the spring<\/span><\/p>\n<p>If you read it differently the second time (adding the second \u201cthe\u201d) you just experienced one of the problems with relying on personal inquiry; that is, the tendency to see what we believe.\u00a0Our assumptions very often guide our perceptions, consequently, when we believe something, we tend to see it even if it is not there. Have you heard the saying, &#8220;seeing is believing&#8221;? Well, the truth is just the opposite: believing is seeing. This problem may just be a result of cognitive \u2018blinders\u2019 or it may be part of a more conscious attempt to support our own views.\u00a0Confirmation bias\u00a0is the tendency to look for evidence that we are right and in so doing, we ignore contradictory evidence.<\/p>\n<p>Philosopher Karl Popper suggested that the distinction between that which is scientific and that which is unscientific is that science is falsifiable; scientific inquiry involves attempts to reject or refute a theory or set of assumptions (Thornton, 2005). A theory that cannot be falsified is not scientific.\u00a0And much of what we do in personal inquiry involves drawing conclusions based on what we have personally experienced or validating our own experience by discussing what we think is true with others who share the same views.<\/p>\n<p>Science offers a more systematic way to make comparisons and guard against bias.\u00a0One technique used to avoid\u00a0sampling bias\u00a0is to select participants for a study in a random way.\u00a0This means using a technique to ensure that all members have an equal chance of being selected.\u00a0Simple random sampling\u00a0may involve using a set of random numbers as a guide in determining who is to be selected.\u00a0For example, if we have a list of 400 people and wish to randomly select a smaller group or\u00a0sample\u00a0to be studied, we use a list of random numbers and select the case that corresponds with that number (Case 39, 3, 217, etc.).\u00a0This is preferable to asking only those individuals with whom we are familiar to participate in a study; if we conveniently chose only people we know, we know nothing about those who had no opportunity to be selected.\u00a0There are many more elaborate techniques that can be used to obtain samples that represent the composition of the population we are studying.\u00a0But even though a randomly selected representative sample is preferable, it is not always used because of costs and other limitations. As a consumer of research, however, you should know how the sample was obtained and keep this in mind when interpreting results. It is possible that what was found was limited to that sample or similar individuals and not generalizable to everyone else.<\/p>\n<h2>Scientific Methods<\/h2>\n<p>The particular method used to conduct research may vary by discipline and since lifespan development is multidisciplinary, more than one method may be used to study human development. One method of scientific investigation involves the following steps:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Determining a research question<\/li>\n<li>Reviewing previous studies addressing the topic in question (known as a literature review)<\/li>\n<li>Determining a method of gathering information<\/li>\n<li>Conducting the study<\/li>\n<li>Interpreting the results<\/li>\n<li>Drawing conclusions; stating limitations of the study and suggestions for future research<\/li>\n<li>Making the findings available to others (both to share information and to have the work scrutinized by others)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The findings of these scientific studies can then be used by others as they explore the area of interest. Through this process, a literature or knowledge base is established.\u00a0This model of scientific investigation presents research as a linear process guided by a specific research question.\u00a0And it typically involves <strong>quantitative research<\/strong>, which relies on numerical data or using statistics to understand and report what has been studied.<\/p>\n<p>Another model of research, referred to as <strong>qualitative research,<\/strong> may involve steps such as these:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Begin with a broad area of interest and a research question<\/li>\n<li>Gain entrance into a group to be researched<\/li>\n<li>Gather field notes about the setting, the people, the structure, the activities or other areas of interest<\/li>\n<li>Ask open-ended, broad \u201cgrand tour\u201d types of questions when interviewing subjects<\/li>\n<li>Modify research questions as the study continues<\/li>\n<li>Note patterns or consistencies<\/li>\n<li>Explore new areas deemed important by the people being observed<\/li>\n<li>Report findings<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In this type of research, theoretical ideas are \u201cgrounded\u201d in the experiences of the participants.\u00a0The researcher is the student and the people in the setting are the teachers as they inform the researcher of their world (Glazer &amp; Strauss, 1967).\u00a0Researchers should be aware of their own biases and assumptions, acknowledge them and bracket them in efforts to keep them from limiting accuracy in reporting. Sometimes qualitative studies are used initially to explore a topic and more quantitative studies are used to test or explain what was first described.<\/p>\n<p>A good way to become more familiar with these scientific research methods, both quantitative and qualitative, is to look at journal articles, which are written in sections that follow these steps in the scientific process. Most psychological articles and many papers in the social sciences follow the writing guidelines and format dictated by the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/owl.english.purdue.edu\/owl\/section\/2\/10\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">American Psychological Association<\/a>\u00a0(APA). In general, the structure follows: abstract (summary of the article), introduction or literature review, methods explaining how the study was conducted, results of the study, discussion and interpretation of findings, and references.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Bren\u00e9 Brown is a bestselling author and social work professor at the University of Houston. She conducts grounded theory research by collecting <em>qualitative<\/em> data from large numbers of participants. In <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?time_continue=177&amp;v=iCvmsMzlF7o\">Bren\u00e9 Brown&#8217;s TED Talk The Power of Vulnerability<\/a>, Brown refers to herself as a storyteller-researcher as she explains her research process and summarizes her results.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_a039085f-3afd-4541-b436-7dbb52f3598e\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/a039085f-3afd-4541-b436-7dbb52f3598e?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_a039085f-3afd-4541-b436-7dbb52f3598e\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Research Methods and Objectives<\/h2>\n<p>The main categories of psychological research are descriptive, correlational, and experimental research.\u00a0Research studies that do not test specific relationships between variables are called\u00a0<strong>descriptive, or qualitative, studies<\/strong>. These studies are used to describe general or specific behaviors and attributes that are observed and measured. In the early stages of research it might be difficult to form a hypothesis, especially when there is not any existing literature in the area. In these situations designing an experiment would be premature, as the question of interest is not yet clearly defined as a hypothesis. Often a researcher will begin with a non-experimental approach, such as a descriptive study, to gather more information about the topic before designing an experiment or correlational study to address a specific hypothesis.\u00a0Some examples of descriptive questions include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\u201cHow much time do parents spend with children?\u201d<\/li>\n<li>\u201cHow many times per week do couples have intercourse?\u201d<\/li>\n<li>\u201cWhen is marital satisfaction greatest?\u201d<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The main types of descriptive studies include observation, case studies, surveys, and content analysis (which we&#8217;ll examine further in the module). Descriptive research is distinct from\u00a0<strong>correlational research<\/strong>, in which psychologists formally test whether a relationship exists between two or more variables.\u00a0<strong>Experimental research<\/strong>\u00a0goes a step further beyond descriptive and correlational research and randomly assigns people to different conditions, using hypothesis testing to make inferences about how these conditions affect behavior. Some experimental research includes <strong>explanatory<\/strong> studies, which\u00a0are efforts to answer the question \u201cwhy\u201d such as:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\u201cWhy have rates of divorce leveled off?\u201d<\/li>\n<li>\u201cWhy are teen pregnancy rates down?\u201d<\/li>\n<li>&#8220;Why has the average life expectancy increased?&#8221;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Evaluation research<\/strong>\u00a0is designed to assess the effectiveness of policies or programs.\u00a0For instance, research might be designed to study the effectiveness of safety programs implemented in schools for installing car seats or fitting bicycle helmets.\u00a0Do children who have been exposed to the safety programs wear their helmets?\u00a0Do parents use car seats properly?\u00a0If not, why not?<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>watch it<\/h3>\n<p>This Crash Course video provides a brief overview of psychological research, which we&#8217;ll cover in more detail on the coming pages.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Psychological Research: Crash Course Psychology #2\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/hFV71QPvX2I?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/PsychologicalResearchCrashCoursePsychology2_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;Psychological Research: Crash Course Psychology #2&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_3ca16424-41d0-4dbc-a762-c37c5bcddb72\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/3ca16424-41d0-4dbc-a762-c37c5bcddb72?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_3ca16424-41d0-4dbc-a762-c37c5bcddb72\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>GLOSSARY<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>correlational research:<\/dt>\n<dd>research that formally tests whether a relationship exists between two or more variables, however, correlation does not imply causation<\/dd>\n<dt>descriptive studies:<\/dt>\n<dd>research focused on describing an occurrence<\/dd>\n<dt>evaluation research:<\/dt>\n<dd>research designed to assess the effectiveness of policies or programs<\/dd>\n<dt>experimental research:<\/dt>\n<dd>research that involves randomly assigning people to different conditions and using hypothesis testing to make inferences about how these conditions affect behavior; the only method that measures cause and effect between variables<\/dd>\n<dt>explanatory studies:<\/dt>\n<dd>research that tries to answer the question \u201cwhy\u201d<\/dd>\n<dt>qualitative research:<\/dt>\n<dd>theoretical ideas are \u201cgrounded\u201d in the experiences of the participants, who answer open-ended questions<\/dd>\n<dt>quantitative research:<\/dt>\n<dd>involves numerical data that are quantified using statistics to understand and report what has been studied<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-109\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Laura Overstreet. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\">http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>question mark. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Alexas_Fotos. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/en\/question-mark-tissue-structure-1098294\/\">https:\/\/pixabay.com\/en\/question-mark-tissue-structure-1098294\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Descriptive Research. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/reading-clinical-or-case-studies\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/reading-clinical-or-case-studies\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psychological Research: Crash Course Psychology #2. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: CrashCourse. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hFV71QPvX2I\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hFV71QPvX2I<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":74,"menu_order":8,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology\",\"author\":\"Laura Overstreet\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"question 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