{"id":145,"date":"2014-09-18T05:21:26","date_gmt":"2014-09-18T05:21:26","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/lifespandevelopment1x1\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=145"},"modified":"2024-04-29T23:11:06","modified_gmt":"2024-04-29T23:11:06","slug":"freuds-psychodynamic-theory","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/chapter\/freuds-psychodynamic-theory\/","title":{"raw":"Psychodynamic Theory","rendered":"Psychodynamic Theory"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe Freud's theory of psychosexual development<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>The Psychodynamic Perspective: A Focus on the Inner Person<\/h2>\r\n<h3>Freud and Psychoanalysis<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_562\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"293\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18052126\/Freud.jpeg\"><img class=\"wp-image-562\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18052126\/Freud.jpeg\" alt=\"Freud. He has a stern look on his face, a short, white beard, and a cigar in his hand.\" width=\"293\" height=\"293\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Sigmund Freud.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWe begin with\u00a0Sigmund Freud, one of the most well-known pioneers and early\u00a0founders of psychology who\u00a0has been a very influential figure in the area of development. His <strong>psychodynamic perspective<\/strong> of development and psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the 1930s and beyond.\u00a0His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children\u2019s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for many years.\u00a0We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain personality traits or emotional states.\u00a0There is a growing body of literature addressing resiliency in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop without damaging emotional scars (O'Grady and Metz, 1987).\u00a0Freud stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated many ideas.\u00a0Agreeing with Freud\u2019s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development.\r\n<h3>Background<\/h3>\r\nSigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who was trained in neurology and asked to work with patients suffering from hysteria, a condition marked by uncontrollable emotional outbursts, fears, and anxiety that had puzzled physicians for centuries.\u00a0He was also asked to work with women who suffered from physical symptoms and forms of paralysis which had no organic causes.\u00a0During that time, many people believed that certain individuals were genetically inferior and thus more susceptible to mental illness.\u00a0Women were thought to be genetically inferior and thus prone to illnesses such as hysteria, which had previously been attributed to a detached womb traveling around in the body (the word \"hyster\" means \"uterus\" in Greek).\r\n\r\nHowever, after World War I, many soldiers came home with problems similar to hysteria.\u00a0This called into question the idea of genetic inferiority as a cause of mental illness. Freud began working with hysterical patients and discovered that when they began to talk about some of their life experiences, particularly those that took place in early childhood, their symptoms disappeared.\u00a0This led him to suggest the first purely psychological explanation for physical problems and mental illness.\u00a0What he proposed was that unconscious motives, desires, fears, and anxieties drive our actions.\u00a0When upsetting memories or thoughts begin to find their way into our consciousness, we develop defenses to shield us from these painful realities, called defense mechanisms.\u00a0Freud believed that many mental illnesses are a result of a person\u2019s inability to accept reality.\r\n\r\nFreud emphasized the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our personality and behavior.\u00a0In our natural state, we are biological beings.\u00a0We are driven primarily by instincts.\u00a0During childhood, however, we begin to become social beings as we learn how to manage our instincts and transform them into socially acceptable behaviors.\u00a0The type of parenting the child receives has a very powerful impact on the child\u2019s personality development.\u00a0We will explore this idea further in our discussion of psychosexual development, but first, we must identify the parts of the \"self\" in Freud's model, or in other words, what constitutes a person's personality and makes us who we are.\r\n<h2>Theory of Personality\/Self<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_2898\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"248\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/23134437\/CNX_Psych_11_02_Iceberg.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-2898 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/23134437\/CNX_Psych_11_02_Iceberg-248x300.jpg\" alt=\"Drawing of an iceberg representing Freud\u2019s model of the psyche. The water represents the unconscious and the air represents the conscious. The Id is a portion of the psyche that is completly submerged in the unconscious. The Superego is mostly submerged in the unconscious but a portion of it is shown in the conscious. The ego is mostly in the conscious but part of it is submerged in the unconscious.\" width=\"248\" height=\"300\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. According to\u00a0Freud's\u00a0model of the psyche, the\u00a0id\u00a0is the primitive and instinctual part of the mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives and hidden memories, the\u00a0superego\u00a0operates as a moral conscience, and the\u00a0ego\u00a0is the realistic part that mediates between the desires of the\u00a0id\u00a0and the\u00a0superego.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAs adults, our personality or self consists of three main parts: the <strong>id<\/strong>, the <strong>ego,\u00a0<\/strong>and the <strong>superego<\/strong>.\u00a0The id,\u00a0the basic, primal part of the personality, is the part of the self with which we are born.\u00a0It consists of the biologically-driven self and includes our instincts and drives.\u00a0It is the part of us that wants\u00a0immediate gratification.\u00a0Later in life, it comes to house our deepest, often unacceptable desires, such as sex and aggression.\u00a0It operates under the pleasure principle which means that the criteria for determining whether something is good or bad is whether it feels good or bad. An infant is all id.\r\n\r\nNext, the ego begins to develop during the first three years of a child's life. Finally, the superego. The\u00a0superego<strong>,\u00a0<\/strong>the last component of personality to develop,\u00a0starts to emerge around the age of five\u00a0when a child interacts\u00a0more and more with others, learning the social rules for right and wrong. The superego acts as our conscience; it is our moral compass that tells us how we should behave. It strives for perfection and judges our behavior, leading to feelings of pride or\u2014when we fall short of the ideal\u2014feelings of guilt.\r\n\r\nIn contrast to the instinctual id and the rule-based superego, the\u00a0ego\u00a0is the rational part of our personality. It\u2019s what Freud considered to be the self, and it is the part of our personality that is seen by others. Its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the context of reality; thus, it operates on what Freud called the \u201creality principle.\u201d The ego helps the id satisfy its desires in a realistic way.\r\n\r\nThe id and superego are in constant conflict because the id wants instant gratification regardless of the consequences, but the superego tells us that we must behave in socially acceptable ways. Thus, the ego\u2019s job is to find the middle ground. It helps satisfy the id\u2019s desires in a rational way that will not lead us to feelings of guilt. According to Freud, a person who has a strong ego, which can balance the demands of the id and the superego, has a healthy personality. Freud maintained that imbalances in the system can lead to\u00a0<strong>neurosis<\/strong>\u00a0(a tendency to experience negative emotions), anxiety disorders, or unhealthy behaviors. For example, a person who is dominated by their id might be narcissistic and impulsive. A person with a dominant superego might be controlled by feelings of guilt and deny themselves even socially acceptable pleasures; conversely, if the superego is weak or absent, a person might become a psychopath. An overly dominant superego might be seen in an over-controlled individual whose rational grasp on reality is so strong that they are unaware of their emotional needs, or, in a neurotic who is overly defensive (overusing ego defense mechanisms).\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/a588c3e2-3966-4803-9c55-88c2fd470f8f\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/42902fa9-8546-4d21-b98d-2f64b347103b\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Theory of Psychosexual Development<\/h2>\r\nFreud believed that personality develops during early childhood and that childhood experiences shape our personalities as well as our behavior as adults. He asserted that we develop via a series of stages during childhood. Each of us must pass through these childhood stages, and if we do not have the proper nurturing and parenting during a stage, we will be stuck, or fixated, in that stage even as adults.\r\n\r\nIn each\u00a0<strong>psychosexual stage <\/strong>of development, the child\u2019s pleasure-seeking urges, coming from the id, are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone. The stages are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital (Table 1).\r\n<table summary=\"A five column table outlines Freud\u2019s stages of psychosexual development. From left to right the columns are labeled, \u201cStage, Age (years), Erogenous Zone, Major Conflict, and Adult Fixation Example.\u201d The contents of the five rows are as follows. The first row contains \u201coral; 0\u20131; mouth; weaning off breast or bottle; and smoking, overeating.\u201d The second row contains \u201canal; 1\u20133; anus; toilet training; and neatness, messiness.\u201d The third row contains \u201cphallic; 3\u20136; genitals; Oedipus\/Electra complex; and vanity, overambition.\u201d The fourth row contains \u201clatency; 6\u201312; none; none; and none.\u201d The fifth row contains \u201cgenital; 12+; genitals; none; and none.\u201d\"><caption>Table 1. Freud\u2019s Stages of Psychosexual Development<\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Stage<\/th>\r\n<th>Age (years)<\/th>\r\n<th>Erogenous Zone<\/th>\r\n<th>Major Conflict<\/th>\r\n<th>Adult Fixation Example<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Oral<\/td>\r\n<td>0\u20131<\/td>\r\n<td>Mouth<\/td>\r\n<td>Weaning off breast or bottle<\/td>\r\n<td>Smoking, overeating<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Anal<\/td>\r\n<td>1\u20133<\/td>\r\n<td>Anus<\/td>\r\n<td>Toilet training<\/td>\r\n<td>Neatness, messiness<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Phallic<\/td>\r\n<td>3\u20136<\/td>\r\n<td>Genitals<\/td>\r\n<td>Oedipus\/Electra complex<\/td>\r\n<td>Vanity, overambition<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Latency<\/td>\r\n<td>6\u201312<\/td>\r\n<td>None<\/td>\r\n<td>None<\/td>\r\n<td>None<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Genital<\/td>\r\n<td>12+<\/td>\r\n<td>Genitals<\/td>\r\n<td>None<\/td>\r\n<td>None<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nFor about the first year of life, the infant is in the <strong>oral stage<\/strong> of psychosexual development.\u00a0The infant meets needs primarily through oral gratification.\u00a0A baby wishes to suck or chew on any object that comes close to the mouth. Babies explore the world through the mouth and find comfort and stimulation as well.\u00a0Psychologically, the infant is all id. The infant seeks immediate gratification of needs such as comfort, warmth, food, and stimulation.\u00a0If the caregiver meets oral needs consistently, the child will move away from this stage and progress further.\u00a0However, if the caregiver is inconsistent or neglectful, the person may become stuck in the oral stage.\u00a0As an adult, the person might not feel good unless involved in some oral activity such as eating, drinking, smoking, nail-biting, or compulsive talking.\u00a0These actions bring comfort and security when the person feels insecure, afraid, or bored.\r\n\r\nDuring the <strong>anal stage<\/strong>, which coincides with toddlerhood and potty-training, the child is taught that some urges must be contained and some actions postponed.\u00a0There are rules about certain functions and when and where they are to be carried out.\u00a0The child is learning a sense of self-control.\u00a0The ego is being developed. If the caregiver is extremely controlling about potty training (stands over the child waiting for the smallest indication that the child might need to go to the potty and immediately scoops the child up and places him on the potty chair, for example), the child may grow up fearing losing control.\u00a0He may become fixated in this stage or \u201canally retentive\u201d\u2014fearful of letting go.\u00a0Such a person might be extremely neat and clean, organized, reliable, and controlling of others.\u00a0If the caregiver neglects to teach the child to control urges, he may grow up to be \u201canal expulsive\u201d or an adult who is messy, irresponsible, and disorganized.\r\n\r\nThe <strong>phallic stage<\/strong> occurs during the preschool years (ages 3-5) when the child has a new biological challenge to face. The child will experience the Oedipus complex which refers to a child's\u00a0unconscious\u00a0sexual desire for the parent of a different sex than them and hatred for the same-sex parent. For example, boys experiencing the Oedipus complex will unconsciously want to replace their father as a companion to their mother but then realize that the father is much more powerful. For a while, the boy fears that if he pursues his mother, his father may castrate him (castration anxiety). So rather than risk losing his penis, he gives up his affections for his mother and instead learns to become more like his father, imitating his actions and mannerisms, thereby learning the role of males in his society. From this experience, the boy learns a sense of masculinity. He also learns what society thinks he should do and experiences guilt if he does not comply. In this way, the superego develops. If he does not resolve this successfully, he may become a \"phallic male\" or a man who constantly tries to prove his masculinity (about which he is insecure), by seducing women and beating up men.\r\n\r\nGirls experience a comparable conflict in the phallic stage\u2014the Electra complex. The Electra complex, while often attributed to Freud, was actually proposed by Freud\u2019s contemporary, Carl Jung (Jung &amp; Kerenyi, 1963). A little girl experiences the Electra complex in which she develops an attraction for her father but realizes that she cannot compete with her mother and so gives up that affection and learns to become more like her mother. This is not without some regret, however. Freud believed that the girl feels inferior because she does not have a penis (experiences \"penis envy\"). But she must resign herself to the fact that she is female and\u00a0will just have to learn her inferior role in society as a female. \u00a0However, if she does not resolve this conflict successfully, she may have a weak sense of femininity and grow up to be a \"castrating female\" who tries to compete with men in the workplace or in other areas of life. The formation of the superego takes place during the dissolution of the Oedipus and Electra complex.\r\n\r\nDuring middle childhood (6-11), the child enters the <strong>latency stage,<\/strong> focusing their attention outside the family and toward friendships. The biological drives are temporarily quieted (latent) and the child can direct attention to a larger world of friends. If the child is able to make friends, they will gain a sense of confidence. If not, the child may continue to be a loner or shy away from others, even as an adult.\r\n\r\nThe final stage of psychosexual development is referred to as the <strong>genital stage<\/strong>.\u00a0From adolescence throughout adulthood, a person is preoccupied with sex and reproduction. The adolescent experiences rising hormone levels and the sex drive and hunger drives become very strong. Ideally, the adolescent will rely on the ego to help think logically through these urges without taking actions that might be damaging. An adolescent might learn to redirect their sexual urges into a safer activity such as running, for example. Quieting the id with the superego can lead to feeling overly self-conscious and guilty about these urges.\u00a0Hopefully, it is the ego that is strengthened during this stage and the adolescent uses reason to manage urges.\r\n\r\nFreud\u2019s psychosexual development theory is quite controversial. To understand the origins of the theory, it is helpful to be familiar with the political, social, and cultural influences of Freud\u2019s day in Vienna at the turn of the 20th century. During this era, a climate of sexual repression, combined with limited understanding and education surrounding human sexuality heavily influenced Freud\u2019s perspective. Given that sex was a taboo topic, Freud assumed that negative emotional states (neuroses) stemmed from the suppression of unconscious sexual and aggressive urges. For Freud, his own recollections and interpretations of patients\u2019 experiences and dreams were sufficient proof that psychosexual stages were universal events in early childhood.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nWatch this video to better understand Freud's theory of psychosexual development.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935242&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=hsie2EuNCNI&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-r1dq78oh-hsie2EuNCNI\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/FreudsPsychosexualDevelopment_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"Freud's Psychosexual Development\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/08ada413-ee2a-40e7-93ac-0bb0d79f4cf3\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Defense mechanisms<\/h2>\r\nFreud believed that feelings of anxiety result from the ego\u2019s inability to mediate the conflict between the id and superego. When this happens, Freud believed that the ego seeks to restore balance through various protective measures known as <strong>defense mechanisms<\/strong>. When certain events, feelings, or yearnings cause anxiety, the individual wishes to reduce that anxiety. To do that, the individual\u2019s unconscious mind uses ego\u00a0defense mechanisms, unconscious protective behaviors that aim to reduce anxiety. The ego, usually conscious, resorts to unconscious strivings to protect the ego from being overwhelmed by anxiety. When we use defense mechanisms, we are unaware that we are using them. Further, they operate in various ways that distort reality. According to Freud, we all use ego defense mechanisms.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_2899\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"896\"]<img class=\"wp-image-2899\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/23140837\/CNX_Psych_11_02_Defense.jpg\" alt=\"A chart defines eight defense mechanisms and gives an example of each. \u201cDenial\u201d is defined as \u201cRefusing to accept real events because they are unpleasant.\u201d The example given is \u201cKaila refuses to admit she has an alcohol problem although she is unable to go a single day without drinking excessively.\u201d \u201cDisplacement\u201d is defined as \u201cTransferring inappropriate urges or behaviors onto a more acceptable or less threatening target.\u201d The example given is \u201cDuring lunch at a restaurant, Mark is angry at his older brother, but does not express it and instead is verbally abusive to the server.\u201d \u201cProjection\u201d is defined as \u201cAttributing unacceptable desires to others.\u201d The example given is \u201cChris often cheats on her boyfriend because she suspects he is already cheating on her.\u201d \u201cRationalization\u201d is defined as \u201cJustifying behaviors by substituting acceptable reasons for less-acceptable real reasons.\u201d The example given is \u201cKim failed his history course because he did not study or attend class, but he told his roommates that he failed because the professor didn\u2019t like him.\u201d \u201cReaction Formation\u201d is defined as \u201cReducing anxiety by adopting beliefs contrary to your own beliefs.\u201d The example given is \u201cNadia is angry with her coworker Beth for always arriving late to work after a night of partying, but she is nice and agreeable to Beth and affirms the partying as cool.\u201d \u201cRegression\u201d is defined as \u201cReturning to coping strategies for less mature stages of development.\u201d The example given is \u201cAfter failing to pass his doctoral examinations, Giorgio spends days in bed cuddling his favorite childhood toy.\u201d \u201cRepression\u201d is defined as \u201cSuppressing painful memories and thoughts.\u201d The example given is \u201cLaShea cannot remember her grandfather\u2019s fatal heart attack, although she was present.\u201d \u201cSublimation\u201d is defined as \u201cRedirecting unacceptable desires through socially acceptable channels.\u201d The example given is \u201cJerome\u2019s desire for revenge on the drunk driver who killed his son is channeled into a community support group for people who\u2019ve lost loved ones to drunk driving.\" width=\"896\" height=\"1056\" \/> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. Defense mechanisms are unconscious protective behaviors that work to reduce anxiety.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nDefense mechanisms emerge to help a person distort reality so that the truth is less painful.\u00a0Defense mechanisms include:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Denial\u2014<\/strong>not accepting the truth or lying to oneself.\u00a0Thoughts such as \u201cit won\u2019t happen to me\u201d or \u201cyou\u2019re not leaving\u201d or \u201cI don\u2019t have a problem with alcohol\u201d are examples.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Displacement\u2014<\/strong>taking out frustrations on a safer target.\u00a0A person who is angry at a boss may take out their frustration at others when driving home or at a spouse upon arrival.<strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Projection\u2014<\/strong>a defense mechanism in which a person attributes their unacceptable thoughts onto others.\u00a0If someone is frightened, for example, they accuse someone else of being afraid.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>R<\/strong><strong>ationalization\u2014<\/strong>a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud (Freud's daughter who continued in her father's path of psychoanalysis). Rationalization involves a cognitive distortion of \"the facts\" to make an event or an impulse less threatening. We often do it on a fairly conscious level when we provide ourselves with excuses.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Reaction formation\u2014<\/strong>a defense mechanism in which a person outwardly opposes something they inwardly desire, but that they find unacceptable.\u00a0An example of this might be someone who dislikes or fears people of another race acting overly nice to people of that race.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Regression\u2014<\/strong>going back to a time when the world felt like a safer place, perhaps reverting to one\u2019s childhood behaviors.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Repression\u2014<\/strong>to push the painful thoughts out of consciousness (in other words, think about something else).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Sublimation\u2014<\/strong>transforming unacceptable urges into more socially acceptable behaviors.\u00a0For example, a teenager who experiences strong sexual urges uses exercise to redirect those urges into more socially acceptable behavior.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>WAtch It<\/h3>\r\nThis video explains more about each of the defense mechanisms.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/youtu.be\/v80Nd8w1uts[\/embed]\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/PsychotherapyAnnaFreud_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"PSYCHOTHERAPY - Anna Freud\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/a08127b8-c31f-4cc7-8671-149dc63b5f12\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Assessing the Psychodynamic Perspective<\/h2>\r\nOriginating in the work of Sigmund Freud, the psychodynamic perspective emphasizes unconscious psychological processes (for example, wishes and fears of which we\u2019re not fully aware), and contends that childhood experiences are crucial in shaping adult personality.\u00a0When reading Freud\u2019s theories, it is important to remember that he was a medical doctor, not a psychologist. There was no such thing as a degree in psychology at the time that he received his education, which can help us understand some of the controversies over his theories today. However, Freud was the first to systematically study and theorize the workings of the unconscious mind in the manner that we associate with modern psychology.\u00a0The psychodynamic perspective has evolved considerably since Freud\u2019s time, encompassing all the theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of conscious and unconscious drives and forces within the person, and between the different structures of the personality (id, ego, superego).\r\n\r\nFreud\u2019s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons.\u00a0One is that it is very difficult to test scientifically.\u00a0How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood?\u00a0Are there other variables that might better explain development?\u00a0Because\u00a0<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">psychodynamic theories are difficult to prove wrong, evaluating those theories, in general, is difficult in that we cannot make definite predictions about a given individual's behavior using the theories.\u00a0<\/span>The theory is also considered to be sexist in suggesting that women who do not accept an inferior position in society are somehow psychologically flawed.\u00a0Freud focused on the darker side of human nature and suggested that much of what determines our actions is unknown to us.\u00a0<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">Others make the criticism that the psychodynamic approach is too deterministic, relating to the idea that all events, including human action, are ultimately determined by causes regarded as external to the will, thereby\u00a0leaving little room for the idea of free will.<span style=\"text-align: initial;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">[footnote]The Generative Society: Caring for Future Generations \u2013 January 1, 2004 by Ed De St Aubin (Author), Ed St Aubin (Editor), Henry Wade Rogers Professor of Psychology and Chair of the Psychology Department Dan P McAdams PhD (Editor), Tae-Chang Kim (Editor)[\/footnote]<\/span><\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\nFreud\u2019s work has been extremely influential, and its impact extends far beyond psychology (several years ago\u00a0<em>Time<\/em>\u00a0magazine selected Freud as one of the most important thinkers of the 20th century). Freud\u2019s work has been not only influential but quite controversial as well. As you might imagine, when Freud suggested in 1900 that much of our behavior is determined by psychological forces of which we\u2019re largely unaware\u2014that we literally don\u2019t know what\u2019s going on in our own minds\u2014people were (to put it mildly) displeased (Freud, 1900\/1953a). When he suggested in 1905 that we humans have strong sexual feelings from a very early age and that some of these sexual feelings are directed toward our parents, people were more than displeased\u2014they were outraged (Freud, 1905\/1953b). Few theories in psychology have evoked such strong reactions from other professionals and members of the public.\r\n\r\nSo why do we study Freud?\u00a0As mentioned above, despite the criticisms, Freud\u2019s assumptions about the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child development, education, and parenting practices.\u00a0Freud\u2019s theory has heuristic value in providing a framework from which to elaborate and modify subsequent theories of development.\u00a0Many later theories, particularly behaviorism and humanism, were challenges to Freud\u2019s views.\u00a0Controversy notwithstanding, no competent psychologist, or student of psychology, can ignore psychodynamic theory. It is simply too important for psychological science and practice and continues to play an important role in a wide variety of disciplines within and outside psychology (for example, developmental psychology, social psychology, sociology, and neuroscience; see\u00a0Bornstein, 2005,\u00a02006;\u00a0Solms &amp; Turnbull, 2011).\u00a0<del><\/del>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]anal stage:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the stage of development when children are learning to control impulses; coincides with toddlerhood and toileting[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]defense mechanisms:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[glossary-term]ego:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the part of the self that helps balance the id and superego by satisfying the id\u2019s desires in a rational way[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]genital stage:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the final stage of psychosexual development when individuals develop sexual interests; begins in adolescence and lasts throughout adulthood[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]id:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the part of the self that is biologically-driven, includes our instincts and drives, and wants immediate gratification[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]latency stage:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning middle childhood, during which sexual development and sexual impulses are dormant[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]neurosis:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a tendency to experience negative emotions[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]oral stage:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the first stage of psychosexual development when infants needs are met primarily through oral gratification[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]phallic stage:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the ages of 3 to 6 years, when the young child's libido (desire) centers upon their genitalia as the erogenous zone[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]psychodynamic perspective:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the perspective that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people's awareness and control[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]psychosexual stages:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]Freud's oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]superego:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the part of the self that acts as our conscience, telling us how we should behave[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe Freud&#8217;s theory of psychosexual development<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>The Psychodynamic Perspective: A Focus on the Inner Person<\/h2>\n<h3>Freud and Psychoanalysis<\/h3>\n<div id=\"attachment_562\" style=\"width: 303px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18052126\/Freud.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-562\" class=\"wp-image-562\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18052126\/Freud.jpeg\" alt=\"Freud. He has a stern look on his face, a short, white beard, and a cigar in his hand.\" width=\"293\" height=\"293\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-562\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Sigmund Freud.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>We begin with\u00a0Sigmund Freud, one of the most well-known pioneers and early\u00a0founders of psychology who\u00a0has been a very influential figure in the area of development. His <strong>psychodynamic perspective<\/strong> of development and psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the 1930s and beyond.\u00a0His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children\u2019s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for many years.\u00a0We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain personality traits or emotional states.\u00a0There is a growing body of literature addressing resiliency in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop without damaging emotional scars (O&#8217;Grady and Metz, 1987).\u00a0Freud stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated many ideas.\u00a0Agreeing with Freud\u2019s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development.<\/p>\n<h3>Background<\/h3>\n<p>Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who was trained in neurology and asked to work with patients suffering from hysteria, a condition marked by uncontrollable emotional outbursts, fears, and anxiety that had puzzled physicians for centuries.\u00a0He was also asked to work with women who suffered from physical symptoms and forms of paralysis which had no organic causes.\u00a0During that time, many people believed that certain individuals were genetically inferior and thus more susceptible to mental illness.\u00a0Women were thought to be genetically inferior and thus prone to illnesses such as hysteria, which had previously been attributed to a detached womb traveling around in the body (the word &#8220;hyster&#8221; means &#8220;uterus&#8221; in Greek).<\/p>\n<p>However, after World War I, many soldiers came home with problems similar to hysteria.\u00a0This called into question the idea of genetic inferiority as a cause of mental illness. Freud began working with hysterical patients and discovered that when they began to talk about some of their life experiences, particularly those that took place in early childhood, their symptoms disappeared.\u00a0This led him to suggest the first purely psychological explanation for physical problems and mental illness.\u00a0What he proposed was that unconscious motives, desires, fears, and anxieties drive our actions.\u00a0When upsetting memories or thoughts begin to find their way into our consciousness, we develop defenses to shield us from these painful realities, called defense mechanisms.\u00a0Freud believed that many mental illnesses are a result of a person\u2019s inability to accept reality.<\/p>\n<p>Freud emphasized the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our personality and behavior.\u00a0In our natural state, we are biological beings.\u00a0We are driven primarily by instincts.\u00a0During childhood, however, we begin to become social beings as we learn how to manage our instincts and transform them into socially acceptable behaviors.\u00a0The type of parenting the child receives has a very powerful impact on the child\u2019s personality development.\u00a0We will explore this idea further in our discussion of psychosexual development, but first, we must identify the parts of the &#8220;self&#8221; in Freud&#8217;s model, or in other words, what constitutes a person&#8217;s personality and makes us who we are.<\/p>\n<h2>Theory of Personality\/Self<\/h2>\n<div id=\"attachment_2898\" style=\"width: 258px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/23134437\/CNX_Psych_11_02_Iceberg.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2898\" class=\"wp-image-2898 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/23134437\/CNX_Psych_11_02_Iceberg-248x300.jpg\" alt=\"Drawing of an iceberg representing Freud\u2019s model of the psyche. The water represents the unconscious and the air represents the conscious. The Id is a portion of the psyche that is completly submerged in the unconscious. The Superego is mostly submerged in the unconscious but a portion of it is shown in the conscious. The ego is mostly in the conscious but part of it is submerged in the unconscious.\" width=\"248\" height=\"300\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-2898\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. According to\u00a0Freud&#8217;s\u00a0model of the psyche, the\u00a0id\u00a0is the primitive and instinctual part of the mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives and hidden memories, the\u00a0superego\u00a0operates as a moral conscience, and the\u00a0ego\u00a0is the realistic part that mediates between the desires of the\u00a0id\u00a0and the\u00a0superego.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>As adults, our personality or self consists of three main parts: the <strong>id<\/strong>, the <strong>ego,\u00a0<\/strong>and the <strong>superego<\/strong>.\u00a0The id,\u00a0the basic, primal part of the personality, is the part of the self with which we are born.\u00a0It consists of the biologically-driven self and includes our instincts and drives.\u00a0It is the part of us that wants\u00a0immediate gratification.\u00a0Later in life, it comes to house our deepest, often unacceptable desires, such as sex and aggression.\u00a0It operates under the pleasure principle which means that the criteria for determining whether something is good or bad is whether it feels good or bad. An infant is all id.<\/p>\n<p>Next, the ego begins to develop during the first three years of a child&#8217;s life. Finally, the superego. The\u00a0superego<strong>,\u00a0<\/strong>the last component of personality to develop,\u00a0starts to emerge around the age of five\u00a0when a child interacts\u00a0more and more with others, learning the social rules for right and wrong. The superego acts as our conscience; it is our moral compass that tells us how we should behave. It strives for perfection and judges our behavior, leading to feelings of pride or\u2014when we fall short of the ideal\u2014feelings of guilt.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the instinctual id and the rule-based superego, the\u00a0ego\u00a0is the rational part of our personality. It\u2019s what Freud considered to be the self, and it is the part of our personality that is seen by others. Its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the context of reality; thus, it operates on what Freud called the \u201creality principle.\u201d The ego helps the id satisfy its desires in a realistic way.<\/p>\n<p>The id and superego are in constant conflict because the id wants instant gratification regardless of the consequences, but the superego tells us that we must behave in socially acceptable ways. Thus, the ego\u2019s job is to find the middle ground. It helps satisfy the id\u2019s desires in a rational way that will not lead us to feelings of guilt. According to Freud, a person who has a strong ego, which can balance the demands of the id and the superego, has a healthy personality. Freud maintained that imbalances in the system can lead to\u00a0<strong>neurosis<\/strong>\u00a0(a tendency to experience negative emotions), anxiety disorders, or unhealthy behaviors. For example, a person who is dominated by their id might be narcissistic and impulsive. A person with a dominant superego might be controlled by feelings of guilt and deny themselves even socially acceptable pleasures; conversely, if the superego is weak or absent, a person might become a psychopath. An overly dominant superego might be seen in an over-controlled individual whose rational grasp on reality is so strong that they are unaware of their emotional needs, or, in a neurotic who is overly defensive (overusing ego defense mechanisms).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_a588c3e2-3966-4803-9c55-88c2fd470f8f\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/a588c3e2-3966-4803-9c55-88c2fd470f8f?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_a588c3e2-3966-4803-9c55-88c2fd470f8f\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_42902fa9-8546-4d21-b98d-2f64b347103b\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/42902fa9-8546-4d21-b98d-2f64b347103b?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_42902fa9-8546-4d21-b98d-2f64b347103b\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Theory of Psychosexual Development<\/h2>\n<p>Freud believed that personality develops during early childhood and that childhood experiences shape our personalities as well as our behavior as adults. He asserted that we develop via a series of stages during childhood. Each of us must pass through these childhood stages, and if we do not have the proper nurturing and parenting during a stage, we will be stuck, or fixated, in that stage even as adults.<\/p>\n<p>In each\u00a0<strong>psychosexual stage <\/strong>of development, the child\u2019s pleasure-seeking urges, coming from the id, are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone. The stages are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital (Table 1).<\/p>\n<table summary=\"A five column table outlines Freud\u2019s stages of psychosexual development. From left to right the columns are labeled, \u201cStage, Age (years), Erogenous Zone, Major Conflict, and Adult Fixation Example.\u201d The contents of the five rows are as follows. The first row contains \u201coral; 0\u20131; mouth; weaning off breast or bottle; and smoking, overeating.\u201d The second row contains \u201canal; 1\u20133; anus; toilet training; and neatness, messiness.\u201d The third row contains \u201cphallic; 3\u20136; genitals; Oedipus\/Electra complex; and vanity, overambition.\u201d The fourth row contains \u201clatency; 6\u201312; none; none; and none.\u201d The fifth row contains \u201cgenital; 12+; genitals; none; and none.\u201d\">\n<caption>Table 1. Freud\u2019s Stages of Psychosexual Development<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Stage<\/th>\n<th>Age (years)<\/th>\n<th>Erogenous Zone<\/th>\n<th>Major Conflict<\/th>\n<th>Adult Fixation Example<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Oral<\/td>\n<td>0\u20131<\/td>\n<td>Mouth<\/td>\n<td>Weaning off breast or bottle<\/td>\n<td>Smoking, overeating<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Anal<\/td>\n<td>1\u20133<\/td>\n<td>Anus<\/td>\n<td>Toilet training<\/td>\n<td>Neatness, messiness<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Phallic<\/td>\n<td>3\u20136<\/td>\n<td>Genitals<\/td>\n<td>Oedipus\/Electra complex<\/td>\n<td>Vanity, overambition<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Latency<\/td>\n<td>6\u201312<\/td>\n<td>None<\/td>\n<td>None<\/td>\n<td>None<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Genital<\/td>\n<td>12+<\/td>\n<td>Genitals<\/td>\n<td>None<\/td>\n<td>None<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>For about the first year of life, the infant is in the <strong>oral stage<\/strong> of psychosexual development.\u00a0The infant meets needs primarily through oral gratification.\u00a0A baby wishes to suck or chew on any object that comes close to the mouth. Babies explore the world through the mouth and find comfort and stimulation as well.\u00a0Psychologically, the infant is all id. The infant seeks immediate gratification of needs such as comfort, warmth, food, and stimulation.\u00a0If the caregiver meets oral needs consistently, the child will move away from this stage and progress further.\u00a0However, if the caregiver is inconsistent or neglectful, the person may become stuck in the oral stage.\u00a0As an adult, the person might not feel good unless involved in some oral activity such as eating, drinking, smoking, nail-biting, or compulsive talking.\u00a0These actions bring comfort and security when the person feels insecure, afraid, or bored.<\/p>\n<p>During the <strong>anal stage<\/strong>, which coincides with toddlerhood and potty-training, the child is taught that some urges must be contained and some actions postponed.\u00a0There are rules about certain functions and when and where they are to be carried out.\u00a0The child is learning a sense of self-control.\u00a0The ego is being developed. If the caregiver is extremely controlling about potty training (stands over the child waiting for the smallest indication that the child might need to go to the potty and immediately scoops the child up and places him on the potty chair, for example), the child may grow up fearing losing control.\u00a0He may become fixated in this stage or \u201canally retentive\u201d\u2014fearful of letting go.\u00a0Such a person might be extremely neat and clean, organized, reliable, and controlling of others.\u00a0If the caregiver neglects to teach the child to control urges, he may grow up to be \u201canal expulsive\u201d or an adult who is messy, irresponsible, and disorganized.<\/p>\n<p>The <strong>phallic stage<\/strong> occurs during the preschool years (ages 3-5) when the child has a new biological challenge to face. The child will experience the Oedipus complex which refers to a child&#8217;s\u00a0unconscious\u00a0sexual desire for the parent of a different sex than them and hatred for the same-sex parent. For example, boys experiencing the Oedipus complex will unconsciously want to replace their father as a companion to their mother but then realize that the father is much more powerful. For a while, the boy fears that if he pursues his mother, his father may castrate him (castration anxiety). So rather than risk losing his penis, he gives up his affections for his mother and instead learns to become more like his father, imitating his actions and mannerisms, thereby learning the role of males in his society. From this experience, the boy learns a sense of masculinity. He also learns what society thinks he should do and experiences guilt if he does not comply. In this way, the superego develops. If he does not resolve this successfully, he may become a &#8220;phallic male&#8221; or a man who constantly tries to prove his masculinity (about which he is insecure), by seducing women and beating up men.<\/p>\n<p>Girls experience a comparable conflict in the phallic stage\u2014the Electra complex. The Electra complex, while often attributed to Freud, was actually proposed by Freud\u2019s contemporary, Carl Jung (Jung &amp; Kerenyi, 1963). A little girl experiences the Electra complex in which she develops an attraction for her father but realizes that she cannot compete with her mother and so gives up that affection and learns to become more like her mother. This is not without some regret, however. Freud believed that the girl feels inferior because she does not have a penis (experiences &#8220;penis envy&#8221;). But she must resign herself to the fact that she is female and\u00a0will just have to learn her inferior role in society as a female. \u00a0However, if she does not resolve this conflict successfully, she may have a weak sense of femininity and grow up to be a &#8220;castrating female&#8221; who tries to compete with men in the workplace or in other areas of life. The formation of the superego takes place during the dissolution of the Oedipus and Electra complex.<\/p>\n<p>During middle childhood (6-11), the child enters the <strong>latency stage,<\/strong> focusing their attention outside the family and toward friendships. The biological drives are temporarily quieted (latent) and the child can direct attention to a larger world of friends. If the child is able to make friends, they will gain a sense of confidence. If not, the child may continue to be a loner or shy away from others, even as an adult.<\/p>\n<p>The final stage of psychosexual development is referred to as the <strong>genital stage<\/strong>.\u00a0From adolescence throughout adulthood, a person is preoccupied with sex and reproduction. The adolescent experiences rising hormone levels and the sex drive and hunger drives become very strong. Ideally, the adolescent will rely on the ego to help think logically through these urges without taking actions that might be damaging. An adolescent might learn to redirect their sexual urges into a safer activity such as running, for example. Quieting the id with the superego can lead to feeling overly self-conscious and guilty about these urges.\u00a0Hopefully, it is the ego that is strengthened during this stage and the adolescent uses reason to manage urges.<\/p>\n<p>Freud\u2019s psychosexual development theory is quite controversial. To understand the origins of the theory, it is helpful to be familiar with the political, social, and cultural influences of Freud\u2019s day in Vienna at the turn of the 20th century. During this era, a climate of sexual repression, combined with limited understanding and education surrounding human sexuality heavily influenced Freud\u2019s perspective. Given that sex was a taboo topic, Freud assumed that negative emotional states (neuroses) stemmed from the suppression of unconscious sexual and aggressive urges. For Freud, his own recollections and interpretations of patients\u2019 experiences and dreams were sufficient proof that psychosexual stages were universal events in early childhood.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this video to better understand Freud&#8217;s theory of psychosexual development.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935242&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=hsie2EuNCNI&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-r1dq78oh-hsie2EuNCNI\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/FreudsPsychosexualDevelopment_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;Freud&#8217;s Psychosexual Development&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_08ada413-ee2a-40e7-93ac-0bb0d79f4cf3\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/08ada413-ee2a-40e7-93ac-0bb0d79f4cf3?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_08ada413-ee2a-40e7-93ac-0bb0d79f4cf3\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Defense mechanisms<\/h2>\n<p>Freud believed that feelings of anxiety result from the ego\u2019s inability to mediate the conflict between the id and superego. When this happens, Freud believed that the ego seeks to restore balance through various protective measures known as <strong>defense mechanisms<\/strong>. When certain events, feelings, or yearnings cause anxiety, the individual wishes to reduce that anxiety. To do that, the individual\u2019s unconscious mind uses ego\u00a0defense mechanisms, unconscious protective behaviors that aim to reduce anxiety. The ego, usually conscious, resorts to unconscious strivings to protect the ego from being overwhelmed by anxiety. When we use defense mechanisms, we are unaware that we are using them. Further, they operate in various ways that distort reality. According to Freud, we all use ego defense mechanisms.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_2899\" style=\"width: 906px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2899\" class=\"wp-image-2899\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/23140837\/CNX_Psych_11_02_Defense.jpg\" alt=\"A chart defines eight defense mechanisms and gives an example of each. \u201cDenial\u201d is defined as \u201cRefusing to accept real events because they are unpleasant.\u201d The example given is \u201cKaila refuses to admit she has an alcohol problem although she is unable to go a single day without drinking excessively.\u201d \u201cDisplacement\u201d is defined as \u201cTransferring inappropriate urges or behaviors onto a more acceptable or less threatening target.\u201d The example given is \u201cDuring lunch at a restaurant, Mark is angry at his older brother, but does not express it and instead is verbally abusive to the server.\u201d \u201cProjection\u201d is defined as \u201cAttributing unacceptable desires to others.\u201d The example given is \u201cChris often cheats on her boyfriend because she suspects he is already cheating on her.\u201d \u201cRationalization\u201d is defined as \u201cJustifying behaviors by substituting acceptable reasons for less-acceptable real reasons.\u201d The example given is \u201cKim failed his history course because he did not study or attend class, but he told his roommates that he failed because the professor didn\u2019t like him.\u201d \u201cReaction Formation\u201d is defined as \u201cReducing anxiety by adopting beliefs contrary to your own beliefs.\u201d The example given is \u201cNadia is angry with her coworker Beth for always arriving late to work after a night of partying, but she is nice and agreeable to Beth and affirms the partying as cool.\u201d \u201cRegression\u201d is defined as \u201cReturning to coping strategies for less mature stages of development.\u201d The example given is \u201cAfter failing to pass his doctoral examinations, Giorgio spends days in bed cuddling his favorite childhood toy.\u201d \u201cRepression\u201d is defined as \u201cSuppressing painful memories and thoughts.\u201d The example given is \u201cLaShea cannot remember her grandfather\u2019s fatal heart attack, although she was present.\u201d \u201cSublimation\u201d is defined as \u201cRedirecting unacceptable desires through socially acceptable channels.\u201d The example given is \u201cJerome\u2019s desire for revenge on the drunk driver who killed his son is channeled into a community support group for people who\u2019ve lost loved ones to drunk driving.\" width=\"896\" height=\"1056\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-2899\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. Defense mechanisms are unconscious protective behaviors that work to reduce anxiety.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Defense mechanisms emerge to help a person distort reality so that the truth is less painful.\u00a0Defense mechanisms include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Denial\u2014<\/strong>not accepting the truth or lying to oneself.\u00a0Thoughts such as \u201cit won\u2019t happen to me\u201d or \u201cyou\u2019re not leaving\u201d or \u201cI don\u2019t have a problem with alcohol\u201d are examples.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Displacement\u2014<\/strong>taking out frustrations on a safer target.\u00a0A person who is angry at a boss may take out their frustration at others when driving home or at a spouse upon arrival.<strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Projection\u2014<\/strong>a defense mechanism in which a person attributes their unacceptable thoughts onto others.\u00a0If someone is frightened, for example, they accuse someone else of being afraid.<\/li>\n<li><strong>R<\/strong><strong>ationalization\u2014<\/strong>a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud (Freud&#8217;s daughter who continued in her father&#8217;s path of psychoanalysis). Rationalization involves a cognitive distortion of &#8220;the facts&#8221; to make an event or an impulse less threatening. We often do it on a fairly conscious level when we provide ourselves with excuses.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Reaction formation\u2014<\/strong>a defense mechanism in which a person outwardly opposes something they inwardly desire, but that they find unacceptable.\u00a0An example of this might be someone who dislikes or fears people of another race acting overly nice to people of that race.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Regression\u2014<\/strong>going back to a time when the world felt like a safer place, perhaps reverting to one\u2019s childhood behaviors.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Repression\u2014<\/strong>to push the painful thoughts out of consciousness (in other words, think about something else).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Sublimation\u2014<\/strong>transforming unacceptable urges into more socially acceptable behaviors.\u00a0For example, a teenager who experiences strong sexual urges uses exercise to redirect those urges into more socially acceptable behavior.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>WAtch It<\/h3>\n<p>This video explains more about each of the defense mechanisms.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"PSYCHOTHERAPY - Anna Freud\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/v80Nd8w1uts?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/PsychotherapyAnnaFreud_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;PSYCHOTHERAPY &#8211; Anna Freud&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_a08127b8-c31f-4cc7-8671-149dc63b5f12\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/a08127b8-c31f-4cc7-8671-149dc63b5f12?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_a08127b8-c31f-4cc7-8671-149dc63b5f12\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Assessing the Psychodynamic Perspective<\/h2>\n<p>Originating in the work of Sigmund Freud, the psychodynamic perspective emphasizes unconscious psychological processes (for example, wishes and fears of which we\u2019re not fully aware), and contends that childhood experiences are crucial in shaping adult personality.\u00a0When reading Freud\u2019s theories, it is important to remember that he was a medical doctor, not a psychologist. There was no such thing as a degree in psychology at the time that he received his education, which can help us understand some of the controversies over his theories today. However, Freud was the first to systematically study and theorize the workings of the unconscious mind in the manner that we associate with modern psychology.\u00a0The psychodynamic perspective has evolved considerably since Freud\u2019s time, encompassing all the theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of conscious and unconscious drives and forces within the person, and between the different structures of the personality (id, ego, superego).<\/p>\n<p>Freud\u2019s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons.\u00a0One is that it is very difficult to test scientifically.\u00a0How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood?\u00a0Are there other variables that might better explain development?\u00a0Because\u00a0<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">psychodynamic theories are difficult to prove wrong, evaluating those theories, in general, is difficult in that we cannot make definite predictions about a given individual&#8217;s behavior using the theories.\u00a0<\/span>The theory is also considered to be sexist in suggesting that women who do not accept an inferior position in society are somehow psychologically flawed.\u00a0Freud focused on the darker side of human nature and suggested that much of what determines our actions is unknown to us.\u00a0<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">Others make the criticism that the psychodynamic approach is too deterministic, relating to the idea that all events, including human action, are ultimately determined by causes regarded as external to the will, thereby\u00a0leaving little room for the idea of free will.<span style=\"text-align: initial;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"The Generative Society: Caring for Future Generations \u2013 January 1, 2004 by Ed De St Aubin (Author), Ed St Aubin (Editor), Henry Wade Rogers Professor of Psychology and Chair of the Psychology Department Dan P McAdams PhD (Editor), Tae-Chang Kim (Editor)\" id=\"return-footnote-145-1\" href=\"#footnote-145-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Freud\u2019s work has been extremely influential, and its impact extends far beyond psychology (several years ago\u00a0<em>Time<\/em>\u00a0magazine selected Freud as one of the most important thinkers of the 20th century). Freud\u2019s work has been not only influential but quite controversial as well. As you might imagine, when Freud suggested in 1900 that much of our behavior is determined by psychological forces of which we\u2019re largely unaware\u2014that we literally don\u2019t know what\u2019s going on in our own minds\u2014people were (to put it mildly) displeased (Freud, 1900\/1953a). When he suggested in 1905 that we humans have strong sexual feelings from a very early age and that some of these sexual feelings are directed toward our parents, people were more than displeased\u2014they were outraged (Freud, 1905\/1953b). Few theories in psychology have evoked such strong reactions from other professionals and members of the public.<\/p>\n<p>So why do we study Freud?\u00a0As mentioned above, despite the criticisms, Freud\u2019s assumptions about the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child development, education, and parenting practices.\u00a0Freud\u2019s theory has heuristic value in providing a framework from which to elaborate and modify subsequent theories of development.\u00a0Many later theories, particularly behaviorism and humanism, were challenges to Freud\u2019s views.\u00a0Controversy notwithstanding, no competent psychologist, or student of psychology, can ignore psychodynamic theory. It is simply too important for psychological science and practice and continues to play an important role in a wide variety of disciplines within and outside psychology (for example, developmental psychology, social psychology, sociology, and neuroscience; see\u00a0Bornstein, 2005,\u00a02006;\u00a0Solms &amp; Turnbull, 2011).\u00a0<del><\/del><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>anal stage:<\/dt>\n<dd>the stage of development when children are learning to control impulses; coincides with toddlerhood and toileting<\/dd>\n<dt>defense mechanisms:<\/dt>\n<dd>psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings<\/dd>\n<dt>ego:<\/dt>\n<dd>the part of the self that helps balance the id and superego by satisfying the id\u2019s desires in a rational way<\/dd>\n<dt>genital stage:<\/dt>\n<dd>the final stage of psychosexual development when individuals develop sexual interests; begins in adolescence and lasts throughout adulthood<\/dd>\n<dt>id:<\/dt>\n<dd>the part of the self that is biologically-driven, includes our instincts and drives, and wants immediate gratification<\/dd>\n<dt>latency stage:<\/dt>\n<dd>the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning middle childhood, during which sexual development and sexual impulses are dormant<\/dd>\n<dt>neurosis:<\/dt>\n<dd>a tendency to experience negative emotions<\/dd>\n<dt>oral stage:<\/dt>\n<dd>the first stage of psychosexual development when infants needs are met primarily through oral gratification<\/dd>\n<dt>phallic stage:<\/dt>\n<dd>the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the ages of 3 to 6 years, when the young child&#8217;s libido (desire) centers upon their genitalia as the erogenous zone<\/dd>\n<dt>psychodynamic perspective:<\/dt>\n<dd>the perspective that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people&#8217;s awareness and control<\/dd>\n<dt>psychosexual stages:<\/dt>\n<dd>Freud&#8217;s oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages<\/dd>\n<dt>superego:<\/dt>\n<dd>the part of the self that acts as our conscience, telling us how we should behave<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-145\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Jessica Traylor for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Laura Overstreet. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\">http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective iceberg image; Defense Mechanisms image. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:KuB6N-0u@5\/Freud-and-the-Psychodynamic-Pe\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:KuB6N-0u@5\/Freud-and-the-Psychodynamic-Pe<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11629\/latest\/.<\/li><li>Freud and the psychodynamic perspective; section on ego and superego; introduction to psychosexual development; paragraph on the electra complex. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/freud-and-the-psychodynamic-perspective\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/freud-and-the-psychodynamic-perspective\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Oedipus Complex. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oedipus_complex#cite_note-www.credoreference.com-23\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oedipus_complex#cite_note-www.credoreference.com-23<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Introduction to Defense Mechanisms. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:KuB6N-0u@5\/Freud-and-the-Psychodynamic-Perspective\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:KuB6N-0u@5\/Freud-and-the-Psychodynamic-Perspective<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11629\/latest\/.<\/li><li>The Psychodynamic Perspective . <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Robert Bornstein. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Adelphi University. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/the-psychodynamic-perspective#reference-16\">https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/the-psychodynamic-perspective#reference-16<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: The Noba Project. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Freud&#039;s Psychosexual Development. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Saylor Academy. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hsie2EuNCNI\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hsie2EuNCNI<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>PSYCHOTHERAPY - Anna Freud. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: The School of Life. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=v80Nd8w1uts\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=v80Nd8w1uts<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Freud Image. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Max Halberstadt. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sigmund_Freud#\/media\/File:Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sigmund_Freud#\/media\/File:Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-145-1\">The Generative Society: Caring for Future Generations \u2013 January 1, 2004 by Ed De St Aubin (Author), Ed St Aubin (Editor), Henry Wade Rogers Professor of Psychology and Chair of the Psychology Department Dan P McAdams PhD (Editor), Tae-Chang Kim (Editor) <a href=\"#return-footnote-145-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":74,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology\",\"author\":\"Laura Overstreet\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"Freud Image\",\"author\":\"Max 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