{"id":148,"date":"2014-09-18T05:24:51","date_gmt":"2014-09-18T05:24:51","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/lifespandevelopment1x1\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=148"},"modified":"2024-04-29T23:11:13","modified_gmt":"2024-04-29T23:11:13","slug":"erikson-and-psychosocial-theory","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/chapter\/erikson-and-psychosocial-theory\/","title":{"raw":"Psychosocial Theory","rendered":"Psychosocial Theory"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_564\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"233\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18052451\/Erikson.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-564 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18052451\/Erikson.png\" alt=\"Erik Erikson\" width=\"233\" height=\"292\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 1.<\/strong> Erik Erikson.[\/caption]\r\n<h2>Erikson's Psychosocial Theory<\/h2>\r\nNow, let's turn to a less controversial psychodynamic theorist, the father of developmental psychology, Erik Erikson (1902-1994). Erikson was a student of Freud\u2019s and expanded on his theory of psychosexual development by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968).\r\n<h2>Background<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm132804624\">As an art school dropout with an uncertain future, young Erik\u00a0<span class=\"no-emphasis\">Erikson<\/span>\u00a0met Freud\u2019s daughter, Anna Freud, while he was tutoring the children of an American couple undergoing psychoanalysis in Vienna. It was Anna Freud who encouraged Erikson to study psychoanalysis. Erikson received his diploma from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute in 1933, and as Nazism spread across Europe, he fled the country and immigrated to the United States that same year. Erikson later proposed a psychosocial theory of development, suggesting that an individual\u2019s personality develops throughout the lifespan\u2014a departure from Freud\u2019s view that personality is fixed in early life. In his theory, Erikson emphasized the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development, in contrast to Freud\u2019s emphasis on erogenous zones. Erikson identified eight stages, each of which includes a conflict or developmental task. The development of a healthy personality and a sense of competence depend on the successful completion of each task.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Psychosocial Stages of Development<\/h2>\r\nErikson believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and that the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id.\u00a0We make conscious choices in life, and these choices focus on meeti<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">ng certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones.\u00a0Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.<\/span>\r\n\r\nErikson's theory is based on what he calls the <em>epigenetic principle<\/em>, encompassing the notion that we develop through an unfolding of our personality in predetermined stages, and that our environment and surrounding culture influence how we progress through these stages. This biological unfolding in relation to our socio-cultural settings is done in\u00a0stages of psychosocial development, where \"progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages.\"[footnote]Erikson, Erik (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. Chapter 3: W.W. Norton and Company. p. 92.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">Erikson\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">described eight stages, each with\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome. Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our life span as we face these challenges. We will discuss each of these stages in greater detail whe<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">n we discuss each of these life stages throughout the course. Here is an overview of each stage:<\/span>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><b>Trust vs. Mistrust (Hope)<\/b>\u2014From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child's basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant\u2019s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby\u2019s needs can engender feelings of\u00a0anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Autonomy vs. Shame (Will)<\/b>\u2014As toddlers (ages 1\u20133 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler\u2019s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is the \u201cme do it\u201d stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.<sup id=\"cite_ref-:1_34-1\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Initiative vs. Guilt (Purpose)<\/b>\u2014Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3\u20136 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child's choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage\u2014with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents\u2014may develop feelings of guilt. <sup id=\"cite_ref-:1_34-2\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Industry vs. Inferiority (Competence)<\/b>\u2014During the elementary school stage (ages 7\u201312), children face the task of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don\u2019t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood. <sup id=\"cite_ref-:1_34-3\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Identity vs. Role Confusion (Fidelity)<\/b>\u2014In adolescence (ages 12\u201318), children face the task of\u00a0<em>identity vs. role confusion.\u00a0<\/em>According to Erikson, an adolescent\u2019s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as \u201cWho am I?\u201d and \u201cWhat do I want to do with my life?\u201d Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas,\u00a0set\u00a0goals, and attempt to discover their adult selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of\u00a0problems and other people\u2019s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents\u2019 ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle to find themselves as adults.<sup id=\"cite_ref-:1_34-5\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Intimacy vs. Isolation (Love)<\/b>\u2014People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Generativity vs. Stagnation (Care)<\/b>\u2014When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life\u2019s work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Integrity vs. Despair (Wisdom)<\/b>\u2014From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson\u2019s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what \u201cwould have,\u201d \u201cshould have,\u201d and \u201ccould have\u201d been. They may face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<table id=\"Table_11_03_01\" class=\"mt-responsive-table\" style=\"height: 335px;\" summary=\"A table outlines Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development. It contains four columns which are labeled \u201cStage; Age (years); Developmental Task; and Description.\u201d Each of the following eight rows corresponds to Erikson\u2019s eight psychosocial stages of development. From left to right, the first row reads: \u201c1; 0\u20131; trust vs. mistrust; and trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met.\u201d The second row reads: \u201c2; 1\u20133; autonomy vs. shame\/doubt; and sense of independence in many tasks develops.\u201d The third row reads: \u201c3; 3\u20136; initiative vs. guilt; and take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped.\u201d The fourth row reads: \u201c4; 7\u201311; industry vs. inferiority; and develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not.\u201d The fifth row reads: \u201c5; 12\u201318; identity vs. confusion; and experiment with and develop identity and roles.\u201d The sixth row reads: \u201c6; 19\u201329; intimacy vs. isolation; and establish intimacy and relationships with others.\u201d The seventh row reads: \u201c7; 30\u201364; generativity vs. stagnation; and contribute to society and be part of a family.\u201d The eighth row reads: \u201c8; 65\u2013; integrity vs. despair; and assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions.\u201d\" width=\"1027\"><caption><em><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development<\/em><\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\" scope=\"col\">Stage<\/th>\r\n<th class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\" scope=\"col\">Approximate Age (years)<\/th>\r\n<th class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\" scope=\"col\">Virtue: Developmental Task<\/th>\r\n<th class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\" scope=\"col\">Description<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">1<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">0\u20131<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">2<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">1\u20133<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Will: Autonomy vs. Shame\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Sense of independence in many tasks develops<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">3<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">3\u20136<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">4<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">7\u201311<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">5<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">12\u201318<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Experiment with and develop identity and roles<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">6<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">19\u201339<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Establish intimacy and relationships with others<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">7<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">40\u201364<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation<\/b><b>\r\n<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Contribute to society and be part of a family<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">8<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">65+<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Wisdom: Integrity vs. Despair\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2>Strengths and weaknesses of Erikson's theory<\/h2>\r\nErikson's eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the lifespan.\u00a0Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once or at different times of life. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy.\u00a0Erikson\u2019s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is a prerequisite for the next crisis of development.\u00a0His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all.\u00a0For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices.\r\n\r\nBy and large, Erikson's view that development continues throughout the lifespan is very significant and has received great recognition. However, like Freud's theory, it has been criticized for focusing on more men than women and also for its vagueness, making it difficult to test rigorously.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nWatch this video to learn more about each of Erikson's stages.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/youtu.be\/SIoKwUcmivk[\/embed]\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/EriksonsPsychosocialDevelopmentKhanAcademy_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"Erikson's psychosocial development | Individuals and Society | MCAT | Khan Academy\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/b98acc15-eec5-4e0b-9318-0b413fa8c74d\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/de2555fe-b851-4054-a2eb-a4ba867592b1\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]eight stages of psychosocial development:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]Erikson's stages of trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame\/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]psychosocial theory:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]Erikson's theory that emphasizes the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development. The lifespan is broken into eight stages, each with\u00a0a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome.[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe Erikson&#8217;s eight stages of psychosocial development<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_564\" style=\"width: 243px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18052451\/Erikson.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-564\" class=\"wp-image-564 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18052451\/Erikson.png\" alt=\"Erik Erikson\" width=\"233\" height=\"292\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-564\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1.<\/strong> Erik Erikson.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Erikson&#8217;s Psychosocial Theory<\/h2>\n<p>Now, let&#8217;s turn to a less controversial psychodynamic theorist, the father of developmental psychology, Erik Erikson (1902-1994). Erikson was a student of Freud\u2019s and expanded on his theory of psychosexual development by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968).<\/p>\n<h2>Background<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm132804624\">As an art school dropout with an uncertain future, young Erik\u00a0<span class=\"no-emphasis\">Erikson<\/span>\u00a0met Freud\u2019s daughter, Anna Freud, while he was tutoring the children of an American couple undergoing psychoanalysis in Vienna. It was Anna Freud who encouraged Erikson to study psychoanalysis. Erikson received his diploma from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute in 1933, and as Nazism spread across Europe, he fled the country and immigrated to the United States that same year. Erikson later proposed a psychosocial theory of development, suggesting that an individual\u2019s personality develops throughout the lifespan\u2014a departure from Freud\u2019s view that personality is fixed in early life. In his theory, Erikson emphasized the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development, in contrast to Freud\u2019s emphasis on erogenous zones. Erikson identified eight stages, each of which includes a conflict or developmental task. The development of a healthy personality and a sense of competence depend on the successful completion of each task.<\/p>\n<h2>Psychosocial Stages of Development<\/h2>\n<p>Erikson believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and that the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id.\u00a0We make conscious choices in life, and these choices focus on meeti<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">ng certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones.\u00a0Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Erikson&#8217;s theory is based on what he calls the <em>epigenetic principle<\/em>, encompassing the notion that we develop through an unfolding of our personality in predetermined stages, and that our environment and surrounding culture influence how we progress through these stages. This biological unfolding in relation to our socio-cultural settings is done in\u00a0stages of psychosocial development, where &#8220;progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages.&#8221;<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Erikson, Erik (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. Chapter 3: W.W. Norton and Company. p. 92.\" id=\"return-footnote-148-1\" href=\"#footnote-148-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">Erikson\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">described eight stages, each with\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome. Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our life span as we face these challenges. We will discuss each of these stages in greater detail whe<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">n we discuss each of these life stages throughout the course. Here is an overview of each stage:<\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><b>Trust vs. Mistrust (Hope)<\/b>\u2014From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child&#8217;s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant\u2019s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby\u2019s needs can engender feelings of\u00a0anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.<\/li>\n<li><b>Autonomy vs. Shame (Will)<\/b>\u2014As toddlers (ages 1\u20133 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler\u2019s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is the \u201cme do it\u201d stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.<sup id=\"cite_ref-:1_34-1\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Initiative vs. Guilt (Purpose)<\/b>\u2014Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3\u20136 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child&#8217;s choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage\u2014with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents\u2014may develop feelings of guilt. <sup id=\"cite_ref-:1_34-2\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Industry vs. Inferiority (Competence)<\/b>\u2014During the elementary school stage (ages 7\u201312), children face the task of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don\u2019t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood. <sup id=\"cite_ref-:1_34-3\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Identity vs. Role Confusion (Fidelity)<\/b>\u2014In adolescence (ages 12\u201318), children face the task of\u00a0<em>identity vs. role confusion.\u00a0<\/em>According to Erikson, an adolescent\u2019s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as \u201cWho am I?\u201d and \u201cWhat do I want to do with my life?\u201d Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas,\u00a0set\u00a0goals, and attempt to discover their adult selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of\u00a0problems and other people\u2019s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents\u2019 ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle to find themselves as adults.<sup id=\"cite_ref-:1_34-5\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Intimacy vs. Isolation (Love)<\/b>\u2014People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.<\/li>\n<li><b>Generativity vs. Stagnation (Care)<\/b>\u2014When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life\u2019s work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.<\/li>\n<li><b>Integrity vs. Despair (Wisdom)<\/b>\u2014From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson\u2019s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what \u201cwould have,\u201d \u201cshould have,\u201d and \u201ccould have\u201d been. They may face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<table id=\"Table_11_03_01\" class=\"mt-responsive-table\" style=\"height: 335px; width: 1027px;\" summary=\"A table outlines Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development. It contains four columns which are labeled \u201cStage; Age (years); Developmental Task; and Description.\u201d Each of the following eight rows corresponds to Erikson\u2019s eight psychosocial stages of development. From left to right, the first row reads: \u201c1; 0\u20131; trust vs. mistrust; and trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met.\u201d The second row reads: \u201c2; 1\u20133; autonomy vs. shame\/doubt; and sense of independence in many tasks develops.\u201d The third row reads: \u201c3; 3\u20136; initiative vs. guilt; and take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped.\u201d The fourth row reads: \u201c4; 7\u201311; industry vs. inferiority; and develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not.\u201d The fifth row reads: \u201c5; 12\u201318; identity vs. confusion; and experiment with and develop identity and roles.\u201d The sixth row reads: \u201c6; 19\u201329; intimacy vs. isolation; and establish intimacy and relationships with others.\u201d The seventh row reads: \u201c7; 30\u201364; generativity vs. stagnation; and contribute to society and be part of a family.\u201d The eighth row reads: \u201c8; 65\u2013; integrity vs. despair; and assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions.\u201d\">\n<caption><em><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development<\/em><\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\" scope=\"col\">Stage<\/th>\n<th class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\" scope=\"col\">Approximate Age (years)<\/th>\n<th class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\" scope=\"col\">Virtue: Developmental Task<\/th>\n<th class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\" scope=\"col\">Description<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">1<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">0\u20131<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">2<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">1\u20133<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Will: Autonomy vs. Shame\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Sense of independence in many tasks develops<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">3<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">3\u20136<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">4<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">7\u201311<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">5<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">12\u201318<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Experiment with and develop identity and roles<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">6<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">19\u201339<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Establish intimacy and relationships with others<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">7<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">40\u201364<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation<\/b><b><br \/>\n<\/b><\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Contribute to society and be part of a family<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">8<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">65+<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Wisdom: Integrity vs. Despair\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>Strengths and weaknesses of Erikson&#8217;s theory<\/h2>\n<p>Erikson&#8217;s eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the lifespan.\u00a0Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once or at different times of life. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy.\u00a0Erikson\u2019s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is a prerequisite for the next crisis of development.\u00a0His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all.\u00a0For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices.<\/p>\n<p>By and large, Erikson&#8217;s view that development continues throughout the lifespan is very significant and has received great recognition. However, like Freud&#8217;s theory, it has been criticized for focusing on more men than women and also for its vagueness, making it difficult to test rigorously.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this video to learn more about each of Erikson&#8217;s stages.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Erikson&#39;s psychosocial development | Individuals and Society | MCAT | Khan Academy\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/SIoKwUcmivk?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/EriksonsPsychosocialDevelopmentKhanAcademy_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;Erikson&#8217;s psychosocial development | Individuals and Society | MCAT | Khan Academy&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_b98acc15-eec5-4e0b-9318-0b413fa8c74d\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/b98acc15-eec5-4e0b-9318-0b413fa8c74d?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_b98acc15-eec5-4e0b-9318-0b413fa8c74d\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_de2555fe-b851-4054-a2eb-a4ba867592b1\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/de2555fe-b851-4054-a2eb-a4ba867592b1?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_de2555fe-b851-4054-a2eb-a4ba867592b1\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>eight stages of psychosocial development:<\/dt>\n<dd>Erikson&#8217;s stages of trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame\/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair<\/dd>\n<dt>psychosocial theory:<\/dt>\n<dd>Erikson&#8217;s theory that emphasizes the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development. The lifespan is broken into eight stages, each with\u00a0a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome.<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-148\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sonja Ann Miller for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Background on Erikson. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:sa5_X4f8@5\/Neo-Freudians-Adler-Erikson-Jung-and-Horney\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:sa5_X4f8@5\/Neo-Freudians-Adler-Erikson-Jung-and-Horney<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.5<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Laura Overstreet. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\">http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Erikson&#039;s Stages of Development. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Boundless. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/oer2go.org\/mods\/en-boundless\/www.boundless.com\/psychology\/textbooks\/boundless-psychology-textbook\/human-development-14\/theories-of-human-development-70\/erikson-s-stages-of-psychosocial-development-269-12804\/index.html\">http:\/\/oer2go.org\/mods\/en-boundless\/www.boundless.com\/psychology\/textbooks\/boundless-psychology-textbook\/human-development-14\/theories-of-human-development-70\/erikson-s-stages-of-psychosocial-development-269-12804\/index.html<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>The Psychodynamic Perspective . <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Robert Bornstein. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Adelphi University. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/the-psychodynamic-perspective#reference-16\">https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/the-psychodynamic-perspective#reference-16<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: The Noba Project. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>epigenetics. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epigenetics\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epigenetics<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Erikson&#039;s psychosocial development. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Khan Academy Medicine. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=SIoKwUcmivk\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=SIoKwUcmivk<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Erik Erikson. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Erik_Erikson#\/media\/File:Erik_Erikson.png\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Erik_Erikson#\/media\/File:Erik_Erikson.png<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-148-1\">Erikson, Erik (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. Chapter 3: W.W. Norton and Company. p. 92. <a href=\"#return-footnote-148-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":74,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology\",\"author\":\"Laura Overstreet\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"Erik Erikson\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Erik_Erikson#\/media\/File:Erik_Erikson.png\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Sonja Ann Miller for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Background on Erikson\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax College\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:sa5_X4f8@5\/Neo-Freudians-Adler-Erikson-Jung-and-Horney\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.5\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Erikson\\'s Stages of Development\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Boundless\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/oer2go.org\/mods\/en-boundless\/www.boundless.com\/psychology\/textbooks\/boundless-psychology-textbook\/human-development-14\/theories-of-human-development-70\/erikson-s-stages-of-psychosocial-development-269-12804\/index.html\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"The Psychodynamic Perspective \",\"author\":\"Robert Bornstein\",\"organization\":\"Adelphi University\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/the-psychodynamic-perspective#reference-16\",\"project\":\"The Noba Project\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"epigenetics\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epigenetics\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Erikson\\'s psychosocial development\",\"author\":\"Khan Academy Medicine\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=SIoKwUcmivk\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"d3073a79-38f2-48f2-abf3-1a81922d1f49, 7161e54a-6820-4299-adbe-6cf88fa3db18","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-148","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":141,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/148","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/74"}],"version-history":[{"count":48,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/148\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":7730,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/148\/revisions\/7730"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/141"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/148\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=148"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=148"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=148"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=148"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}