{"id":2188,"date":"2019-03-02T03:32:44","date_gmt":"2019-03-02T03:32:44","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=2188"},"modified":"2024-04-30T19:14:04","modified_gmt":"2024-04-30T19:14:04","slug":"gender-and-early-childhood","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/chapter\/gender-and-early-childhood\/","title":{"raw":"Gender and Early Childhood","rendered":"Gender and Early Childhood"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe gender identity development in early childhood<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Gender Identity, Gender Constancy, and Gender Roles<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3864\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"354\"]<img class=\"wp-image-3864\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2019\/03\/21201417\/boy-and-girl-are-smiling-playing-with-toys-725x4831-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"A boy and girl are seen playing in the dirt\" width=\"354\" height=\"235\" \/> <strong> Figure 1. <\/strong>Young children are interested in exploring the differences between what activities are acceptable for boys and girls.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAnother important dimension of the self is the sense of self as male or female.\u00a0Preschool aged children become increasingly interested in finding out the differences between boys and girls both physically and in terms of what activities are acceptable for each.\u00a0While two-year-olds can identify some differences and learn whether they are boys or girls, preschoolers become more interested in what it means to be male or female.\u00a0This self-identification, or\u00a0gender identity, is followed sometime later with\u00a0gender constancy, or the understanding that superficial changes do not mean that gender has actually changed. For example, if you are playing with a two-year-old boy and put barrettes in his hair, he may protest saying that he doesn't want to be a girl. By the time a child is four-years-old, they have a solid understanding that putting barrettes in their hair does not change their gender.\r\n\r\nChildren learn at a young age that there are distinct expectations for boys and girls. Cross-cultural studies reveal that children are aware of gender roles by age two or three. At four or five, most children are firmly entrenched in culturally appropriate gender roles (Kane 1996). Children acquire these roles through socialization, a process in which people learn to behave in a particular way as dictated by societal values, beliefs, and attitudes.\r\n\r\nChildren may also use gender stereotyping readily. Gender stereotyping involves overgeneralizing about the attitudes, traits, or behavior patterns of women or men. A recent research study\u00a0examined four- and five-year-old children's predictions concerning the sex of the persons carrying out a variety of common activities and occupations on television. The children's responses revealed strong gender-stereotyped expectations.\u00a0They also found that children's estimates of their own future competence indicated stereotypical beliefs, with the females more likely to reject masculine activities<span style=\"color: #cc99ff;\">.<\/span>\r\n\r\nChildren who are allowed to explore different toys, who are exposed to non-traditional gender roles, and whose parents and caregivers are open to allowing the child to take part in non-traditional play (allowing a boy to nurture a doll, or allowing a girl to play doctor) tend to have broader definitions of what is gender appropriate, and may do less gender stereotyping.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nThis clip from Upworthy shows how some children were surprised to meet women in traditionally male occupations.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/G3Aweo-74kY[\/embed]\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/AClassThatTurnedAroundKidsAssumptions_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"A Class That Turned Around Kids' Assumptions of Gender Roles!\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Dig Deeper: Gender Identity Development<\/h3>\r\nThe National Center on Parent, Family, and Community Engagement identified several stages of gender identity development, as outlined below. You can see more of their resources and tips for healthy gender development by reading <a href=\"https:\/\/depts.washington.edu\/dbpeds\/healthy-gender-development.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Healthy Gender Development and Young Children.<\/a>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Infancy<\/strong>. Children observe messages about gender from adults\u2019 appearances, activities, and behaviors. Most parents\u2019 interactions with their infants are shaped by the child\u2019s gender, and this in turn also shapes the child\u2019s understanding of gender (Fagot &amp; Leinbach, 1989; Witt, 1997; Zosuls, Miller, Ruble, Martin, &amp; Fabes, 2011).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>18\u201324 months<\/strong>. Toddlers begin to define gender, using messages from many sources. As they develop a sense of self, toddlers look for patterns in their homes and early care settings. Gender is one way to understand group belonging, which is important for secure development (Kuhn, Nash &amp; Brucken, 1978; Langlois &amp; Downs, 1980; Fagot &amp; Leinbach, 1989; Baldwin &amp; Moses, 1996; Witt, 1997; Antill, Cunningham, &amp; Cotton, 2003; Zoslus, et al., 2009).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Ages 3\u20134<\/strong>. Gender identity takes on more meaning as children begin to focus on all kinds of differences. Children begin to connect the concept \u201cgirl\u201d or \u201cboy\u201d to specific attributes. They form stronger rules or expectations for how each gender behaves and looks (Kuhn, Nash, &amp; Brucken 1978; Martin, Ruble, &amp; Szkrybalo, 2004; Halim &amp; Ruble, 2010).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Ages 5\u20136<\/strong>. At these ages, children\u2019s thinking may be rigid in many ways. For example, 5- and 6-year-olds are very aware of rules and of the pressure to comply with them. They do so rigidly because they are not yet developmentally ready to think more deeply about the beliefs and values that many rules are based on. For example, as early educators and parents know, the use of \u201cwhite lies\u201d is still hard for them to understand. Researchers call these ages the most \u201crigid\u201d period of gender identity (Weinraub et al., 1984; Egan, Perry, &amp; Dannemiller, 2001; Miller, Lurye, Zosuls, &amp; Ruble, 2009). A child who wants to do or wear things that are not typical of his gender is probably aware that other children find it strange. The persistence of these choices, despite the negative reactions of others, show that these are strong feelings. Gender rigidity typically declines as children age (Trautner et al., 2005; Halim, Ruble, Tamis-LeMonda, &amp; Shrout, 2013). With this change, children develop stronger moral impulses about what is \u201cfair\u201d for themselves and other children (Killen &amp; Stangor, 2001).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIt is important to understand these typical and normal attempts for children to understand the world around them. It is helpful to encourage children and support them as individuals, instead of emphasizing or playing into gender roles and expectations. You can foster self-esteem in children of any gender by giving all children positive feedback about their unique skills and qualities. For example, you might say to a child, \u201cI noticed how kind you were to your friend when she fell down\u201d or \u201cYou were very helpful with clean-up today\u2014you are such a great helper\u201d or \u201cYou were such a strong runner on the playground today.\u201d\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/42d2227e-c29c-4498-88b7-b8fe448cb06a\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2><strong>Learning Through Reinforcement and Modeling<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nLearning theorists suggest that gender role socialization is a result of the ways in which parents, teachers, friends, schools, religious institutions, media, and others send messages about what is acceptable or desirable behavior for males or females.\u00a0This socialization begins early\u2014in\u00a0fact,\u00a0it may even begin the moment a parent learns that a child is on the way.\u00a0Knowing the sex of the child can conjure up images of the child\u2019s behavior, appearance, and potential on the part of a parent.\u00a0And this stereotyping continues to guide perception through life.\u00a0Consider parents of newborns. Shown a 7-pound, 20-inch baby, wrapped in blue (a color designating males) describe the child as tough, strong, and angry when crying.\u00a0Shown the same infant in pink (a color used in the United States for baby girls), these parents are likely to describe the baby as pretty, delicate, and frustrated when crying (Maccoby &amp; Jacklin, 1987).\u00a0Female infants are held more, talked to more frequently and given direct eye contact, while male infants' play is often mediated through a toy or activity.\r\n\r\nOne way children learn gender roles is through play. Parents typically supply boys with trucks, toy guns, and superhero paraphernalia, which are active toys that promote motor skills, aggression, and solitary play. Daughters are often given dolls and dress-up apparel that foster nurturing, social proximity, and role play.\u00a0Studies have shown that children will most likely choose to play with \u201cgender appropriate\u201d toys (or same-gender toys) even when cross-gender toys are available because parents give children positive feedback (in the form of praise, involvement, and physical closeness) for gender normative behavior (Caldera, Huston, and O\u2019Brien 1998).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3860\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"225\"]<img class=\"wp-image-3860 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2019\/03\/21200640\/150410204_3f96f28e94_o-225x300.jpg\" alt=\"A girl is seen playing with a doll and stroller\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\" \/> <strong><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Figure 2<\/span>. <\/strong>Little girls are often encouraged to play with toys that support female stereotypes of being nurturing.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nSons are given tasks that take them outside the house and that have to be performed only on occasion, while girls are more likely to be given chores inside the home, such as cleaning or cooking, that are performed daily.\u00a0Sons are encouraged to think for themselves when they encounter problems, and daughters are more likely to be given assistance even when they are working on an answer.\u00a0This impatience is reflected in teachers waiting less time when asking a female student for an answer than when asking for a reply from a male student (Sadker and Sadker, 1994).\u00a0Girls are given the message from teachers that they must try harder and endure in order to succeed while\u00a0boys\u00a0successes are attributed to their intelligence.\u00a0Of course, the stereotypes of advisors can also influence which kinds of courses or vocational choices girls and boys are encouraged to make.\r\n\r\nFriends discuss what is acceptable for boys and girls, and popularity may be based on modeling what is considered ideal behavior or appearance for the sexes.\u00a0Girls tend to tell one another secrets to validate others as best friends, while boys compete for position by emphasizing their knowledge, strength or accomplishments.\u00a0This focus on accomplishments can even give rise to exaggerating accomplishments in boys, but girls are discouraged from showing off and may learn to minimize their accomplishments as a result.\r\n\r\nGender messages abound in our environment. But does this mean that each of us receives and interprets these messages in the same way? Probably not. In addition to being recipients of these cultural expectations, we are individuals who also modify these roles (Kimmel, 2008).\r\n\r\nOne interesting recent finding is that girls may have an easier time breaking gender norms than boys.[footnote]Strauss, Elissa (April 2018). \"Why girls can be boyish but boys can't be girlish\". CNN. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2018\/04\/12\/health\/boys-girls-gender-norms-parenting-strauss\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2018\/04\/12\/health\/boys-girls-gender-norms-parenting-strauss\/index.html<\/a>.[\/footnote] Girls who play with masculine toys often do not face the same ridicule from adults or peers that boys face when they want to play with feminine toys. Girls also face less ridicule when playing a masculine role (like doctor) as opposed to a boy who wants to take a feminine role (like caregiver).\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>watch it<\/h3>\r\nThis video provides an overview of common toy commercials and how they can be analyzed based on recent research on gender stereotypes. What gender roles or gender stereotypes have you noticed in toy commercials? How do you think toy commercials have changed over the past few years?\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935311&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=04loNxkpq5g&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-0gkt8kxy-04loNxkpq5g\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/ToyCommercialsPlayingWithGender_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"Toy Commercials: Playing with Gender\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>The Impact of Gender Discrimination<\/h2>\r\nHow much does gender matter?\u00a0In the United States, gender differences are found in school experiences. Even into college and professional school, girls are likely to be perceived as less vocal in class and much more at risk for sexual harassment from teachers, coaches, classmates, and professors. These gender differences are also found in social interactions and in media messages.\u00a0The\u00a0stereotypes that boys should be strong, forceful, active, dominant, and rational, and that girls should be pretty, subordinate, unintelligent, emotional, and talkative are portrayed in children\u2019s toys, books, commercials, video games, movies, television shows, and music.\u00a0In adulthood, these differences are reflected in income gaps between men and women (women working full-time earn about 74 percent of the income of men), in higher rates of women suffering rape and domestic violence, higher rates of eating disorders for females, and in higher rates of violent death for men in young adulthood.\r\n\r\nGender differences in India can be a matter of life and death as preferences for male children have been historically strong and are still held, especially in rural areas (WHO, 2010). Male children are given preference for receiving food, breast milk, medical care, and other resources.\u00a0In some countries, it is no longer legal to give parents information on the sex of their developing child for fear that they will abort a female fetus. Clearly, gender socialization and discrimination still impact development in a variety of ways across the globe. Gender discrimination generally persists throughout the lifespan in the form of obstacles to education, or lack of access to political, financial, and social power.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/3dd66711-bbf2-4768-b351-717d0c7381f3\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\r\n\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]gender:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male\/masculine or female\/feminine[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]gender identity:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the way that one thinks about gender and self-identifies, can be female, male, or genderqueer[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe gender identity development in early childhood<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Gender Identity, Gender Constancy, and Gender Roles<\/h2>\n<div id=\"attachment_3864\" style=\"width: 364px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3864\" class=\"wp-image-3864\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2019\/03\/21201417\/boy-and-girl-are-smiling-playing-with-toys-725x4831-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"A boy and girl are seen playing in the dirt\" width=\"354\" height=\"235\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-3864\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong> Figure 1. <\/strong>Young children are interested in exploring the differences between what activities are acceptable for boys and girls.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Another important dimension of the self is the sense of self as male or female.\u00a0Preschool aged children become increasingly interested in finding out the differences between boys and girls both physically and in terms of what activities are acceptable for each.\u00a0While two-year-olds can identify some differences and learn whether they are boys or girls, preschoolers become more interested in what it means to be male or female.\u00a0This self-identification, or\u00a0gender identity, is followed sometime later with\u00a0gender constancy, or the understanding that superficial changes do not mean that gender has actually changed. For example, if you are playing with a two-year-old boy and put barrettes in his hair, he may protest saying that he doesn&#8217;t want to be a girl. By the time a child is four-years-old, they have a solid understanding that putting barrettes in their hair does not change their gender.<\/p>\n<p>Children learn at a young age that there are distinct expectations for boys and girls. Cross-cultural studies reveal that children are aware of gender roles by age two or three. At four or five, most children are firmly entrenched in culturally appropriate gender roles (Kane 1996). Children acquire these roles through socialization, a process in which people learn to behave in a particular way as dictated by societal values, beliefs, and attitudes.<\/p>\n<p>Children may also use gender stereotyping readily. Gender stereotyping involves overgeneralizing about the attitudes, traits, or behavior patterns of women or men. A recent research study\u00a0examined four- and five-year-old children&#8217;s predictions concerning the sex of the persons carrying out a variety of common activities and occupations on television. The children&#8217;s responses revealed strong gender-stereotyped expectations.\u00a0They also found that children&#8217;s estimates of their own future competence indicated stereotypical beliefs, with the females more likely to reject masculine activities<span style=\"color: #cc99ff;\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Children who are allowed to explore different toys, who are exposed to non-traditional gender roles, and whose parents and caregivers are open to allowing the child to take part in non-traditional play (allowing a boy to nurture a doll, or allowing a girl to play doctor) tend to have broader definitions of what is gender appropriate, and may do less gender stereotyping.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>This clip from Upworthy shows how some children were surprised to meet women in traditionally male occupations.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"A Class That Turned Around Kids&#39; Assumptions of Gender Roles!\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/G3Aweo-74kY?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/AClassThatTurnedAroundKidsAssumptions_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;A Class That Turned Around Kids&#8217; Assumptions of Gender Roles!&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Dig Deeper: Gender Identity Development<\/h3>\n<p>The National Center on Parent, Family, and Community Engagement identified several stages of gender identity development, as outlined below. You can see more of their resources and tips for healthy gender development by reading <a href=\"https:\/\/depts.washington.edu\/dbpeds\/healthy-gender-development.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Healthy Gender Development and Young Children.<\/a><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Infancy<\/strong>. Children observe messages about gender from adults\u2019 appearances, activities, and behaviors. Most parents\u2019 interactions with their infants are shaped by the child\u2019s gender, and this in turn also shapes the child\u2019s understanding of gender (Fagot &amp; Leinbach, 1989; Witt, 1997; Zosuls, Miller, Ruble, Martin, &amp; Fabes, 2011).<\/li>\n<li><strong>18\u201324 months<\/strong>. Toddlers begin to define gender, using messages from many sources. As they develop a sense of self, toddlers look for patterns in their homes and early care settings. Gender is one way to understand group belonging, which is important for secure development (Kuhn, Nash &amp; Brucken, 1978; Langlois &amp; Downs, 1980; Fagot &amp; Leinbach, 1989; Baldwin &amp; Moses, 1996; Witt, 1997; Antill, Cunningham, &amp; Cotton, 2003; Zoslus, et al., 2009).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ages 3\u20134<\/strong>. Gender identity takes on more meaning as children begin to focus on all kinds of differences. Children begin to connect the concept \u201cgirl\u201d or \u201cboy\u201d to specific attributes. They form stronger rules or expectations for how each gender behaves and looks (Kuhn, Nash, &amp; Brucken 1978; Martin, Ruble, &amp; Szkrybalo, 2004; Halim &amp; Ruble, 2010).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ages 5\u20136<\/strong>. At these ages, children\u2019s thinking may be rigid in many ways. For example, 5- and 6-year-olds are very aware of rules and of the pressure to comply with them. They do so rigidly because they are not yet developmentally ready to think more deeply about the beliefs and values that many rules are based on. For example, as early educators and parents know, the use of \u201cwhite lies\u201d is still hard for them to understand. Researchers call these ages the most \u201crigid\u201d period of gender identity (Weinraub et al., 1984; Egan, Perry, &amp; Dannemiller, 2001; Miller, Lurye, Zosuls, &amp; Ruble, 2009). A child who wants to do or wear things that are not typical of his gender is probably aware that other children find it strange. The persistence of these choices, despite the negative reactions of others, show that these are strong feelings. Gender rigidity typically declines as children age (Trautner et al., 2005; Halim, Ruble, Tamis-LeMonda, &amp; Shrout, 2013). With this change, children develop stronger moral impulses about what is \u201cfair\u201d for themselves and other children (Killen &amp; Stangor, 2001).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>It is important to understand these typical and normal attempts for children to understand the world around them. It is helpful to encourage children and support them as individuals, instead of emphasizing or playing into gender roles and expectations. You can foster self-esteem in children of any gender by giving all children positive feedback about their unique skills and qualities. For example, you might say to a child, \u201cI noticed how kind you were to your friend when she fell down\u201d or \u201cYou were very helpful with clean-up today\u2014you are such a great helper\u201d or \u201cYou were such a strong runner on the playground today.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_42d2227e-c29c-4498-88b7-b8fe448cb06a\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/42d2227e-c29c-4498-88b7-b8fe448cb06a?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_42d2227e-c29c-4498-88b7-b8fe448cb06a\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2><strong>Learning Through Reinforcement and Modeling<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>Learning theorists suggest that gender role socialization is a result of the ways in which parents, teachers, friends, schools, religious institutions, media, and others send messages about what is acceptable or desirable behavior for males or females.\u00a0This socialization begins early\u2014in\u00a0fact,\u00a0it may even begin the moment a parent learns that a child is on the way.\u00a0Knowing the sex of the child can conjure up images of the child\u2019s behavior, appearance, and potential on the part of a parent.\u00a0And this stereotyping continues to guide perception through life.\u00a0Consider parents of newborns. Shown a 7-pound, 20-inch baby, wrapped in blue (a color designating males) describe the child as tough, strong, and angry when crying.\u00a0Shown the same infant in pink (a color used in the United States for baby girls), these parents are likely to describe the baby as pretty, delicate, and frustrated when crying (Maccoby &amp; Jacklin, 1987).\u00a0Female infants are held more, talked to more frequently and given direct eye contact, while male infants&#8217; play is often mediated through a toy or activity.<\/p>\n<p>One way children learn gender roles is through play. Parents typically supply boys with trucks, toy guns, and superhero paraphernalia, which are active toys that promote motor skills, aggression, and solitary play. Daughters are often given dolls and dress-up apparel that foster nurturing, social proximity, and role play.\u00a0Studies have shown that children will most likely choose to play with \u201cgender appropriate\u201d toys (or same-gender toys) even when cross-gender toys are available because parents give children positive feedback (in the form of praise, involvement, and physical closeness) for gender normative behavior (Caldera, Huston, and O\u2019Brien 1998).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_3860\" style=\"width: 235px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3860\" class=\"wp-image-3860 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2019\/03\/21200640\/150410204_3f96f28e94_o-225x300.jpg\" alt=\"A girl is seen playing with a doll and stroller\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-3860\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Figure 2<\/span>. <\/strong>Little girls are often encouraged to play with toys that support female stereotypes of being nurturing.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Sons are given tasks that take them outside the house and that have to be performed only on occasion, while girls are more likely to be given chores inside the home, such as cleaning or cooking, that are performed daily.\u00a0Sons are encouraged to think for themselves when they encounter problems, and daughters are more likely to be given assistance even when they are working on an answer.\u00a0This impatience is reflected in teachers waiting less time when asking a female student for an answer than when asking for a reply from a male student (Sadker and Sadker, 1994).\u00a0Girls are given the message from teachers that they must try harder and endure in order to succeed while\u00a0boys\u00a0successes are attributed to their intelligence.\u00a0Of course, the stereotypes of advisors can also influence which kinds of courses or vocational choices girls and boys are encouraged to make.<\/p>\n<p>Friends discuss what is acceptable for boys and girls, and popularity may be based on modeling what is considered ideal behavior or appearance for the sexes.\u00a0Girls tend to tell one another secrets to validate others as best friends, while boys compete for position by emphasizing their knowledge, strength or accomplishments.\u00a0This focus on accomplishments can even give rise to exaggerating accomplishments in boys, but girls are discouraged from showing off and may learn to minimize their accomplishments as a result.<\/p>\n<p>Gender messages abound in our environment. But does this mean that each of us receives and interprets these messages in the same way? Probably not. In addition to being recipients of these cultural expectations, we are individuals who also modify these roles (Kimmel, 2008).<\/p>\n<p>One interesting recent finding is that girls may have an easier time breaking gender norms than boys.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Strauss, Elissa (April 2018). &quot;Why girls can be boyish but boys can't be girlish&quot;. CNN. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2018\/04\/12\/health\/boys-girls-gender-norms-parenting-strauss\/index.html.\" id=\"return-footnote-2188-1\" href=\"#footnote-2188-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> Girls who play with masculine toys often do not face the same ridicule from adults or peers that boys face when they want to play with feminine toys. Girls also face less ridicule when playing a masculine role (like doctor) as opposed to a boy who wants to take a feminine role (like caregiver).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>watch it<\/h3>\n<p>This video provides an overview of common toy commercials and how they can be analyzed based on recent research on gender stereotypes. What gender roles or gender stereotypes have you noticed in toy commercials? How do you think toy commercials have changed over the past few years?<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935311&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=04loNxkpq5g&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-0gkt8kxy-04loNxkpq5g\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/ToyCommercialsPlayingWithGender_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;Toy Commercials: Playing with Gender&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>The Impact of Gender Discrimination<\/h2>\n<p>How much does gender matter?\u00a0In the United States, gender differences are found in school experiences. Even into college and professional school, girls are likely to be perceived as less vocal in class and much more at risk for sexual harassment from teachers, coaches, classmates, and professors. These gender differences are also found in social interactions and in media messages.\u00a0The\u00a0stereotypes that boys should be strong, forceful, active, dominant, and rational, and that girls should be pretty, subordinate, unintelligent, emotional, and talkative are portrayed in children\u2019s toys, books, commercials, video games, movies, television shows, and music.\u00a0In adulthood, these differences are reflected in income gaps between men and women (women working full-time earn about 74 percent of the income of men), in higher rates of women suffering rape and domestic violence, higher rates of eating disorders for females, and in higher rates of violent death for men in young adulthood.<\/p>\n<p>Gender differences in India can be a matter of life and death as preferences for male children have been historically strong and are still held, especially in rural areas (WHO, 2010). Male children are given preference for receiving food, breast milk, medical care, and other resources.\u00a0In some countries, it is no longer legal to give parents information on the sex of their developing child for fear that they will abort a female fetus. Clearly, gender socialization and discrimination still impact development in a variety of ways across the globe. Gender discrimination generally persists throughout the lifespan in the form of obstacles to education, or lack of access to political, financial, and social power.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_3dd66711-bbf2-4768-b351-717d0c7381f3\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/3dd66711-bbf2-4768-b351-717d0c7381f3?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_3dd66711-bbf2-4768-b351-717d0c7381f3\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>gender:<\/dt>\n<dd>a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male\/masculine or female\/feminine<\/dd>\n<dt>gender identity:<\/dt>\n<dd>the way that one thinks about gender and self-identifies, can be female, male, or genderqueer<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-2188\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Sex and Gender paragraphs. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/chapter\/sex-and-gender\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/chapter\/sex-and-gender\/<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Introduction to Sociology. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Stephanie Loalada for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Laura Overstreet. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\">http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Falling into gender roles. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Aaron Silvers. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/ehTHo\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/ehTHo<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Boy and girl playing. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Cade Martin. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pixnio.com\/people\/children-kids\/boy-and-girl-are-smiling-playing-with-toys\">https:\/\/pixnio.com\/people\/children-kids\/boy-and-girl-are-smiling-playing-with-toys<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Gender and socioalization information. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/chapter\/gender-and-socialization\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/chapter\/gender-and-socialization\/<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Introduction to Sociology. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Gender roles in childhood. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gender_roles_in_childhood\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gender_roles_in_childhood<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Toy Commercials: Playing with Gender. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Michelle Magrum. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?time_continue=317&#038;v=04loNxkpq5g\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?time_continue=317&#038;v=04loNxkpq5g<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>A Class That Turned Around Kids&#039; Assumptions of Gender Roles!. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Upworthy. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=G3Aweo-74kY\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=G3Aweo-74kY<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Content in DIG DEEPER: GENDER IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: National Center on Parent, Family, and Community Engagement . <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/depts.washington.edu\/dbpeds\/healthy-gender-development.pdf\">https:\/\/depts.washington.edu\/dbpeds\/healthy-gender-development.pdf<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-2188-1\">Strauss, Elissa (April 2018). \"Why girls can be boyish but boys can't be girlish\". CNN. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2018\/04\/12\/health\/boys-girls-gender-norms-parenting-strauss\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2018\/04\/12\/health\/boys-girls-gender-norms-parenting-strauss\/index.html<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-2188-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":142491,"menu_order":12,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology\",\"author\":\"Laura Overstreet\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Sex and Gender paragraphs\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/chapter\/sex-and-gender\/\",\"project\":\"Introduction to 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