{"id":2292,"date":"2019-03-07T18:55:06","date_gmt":"2019-03-07T18:55:06","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=2292"},"modified":"2024-04-30T19:10:39","modified_gmt":"2024-04-30T19:10:39","slug":"motor-and-sensory-development","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/chapter\/motor-and-sensory-development\/","title":{"raw":"Motor and Sensory Development","rendered":"Motor and Sensory Development"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain gross and fine motor skills in infants<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain newborn perceptual abilities<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>From Reflexes to Voluntary Movements<\/h2>\r\nEvery basic <strong>motor skill<\/strong> (any movement ability) develops over the first two years of life. The sequence of motor skills first begins with <strong>reflexes<\/strong>. Infants are equipped with a number of reflexes, or involuntary movements in response to stimulation, and some are necessary for survival.\u00a0These include the breathing reflex, or the need to maintain an oxygen supply (this includes hiccups, sneezing, and thrashing reflexes), reflexes that maintain body temperature (crying, shivering, tucking the legs close, and pushing away blankets), the sucking reflex, or automatically sucking on objects that touch their lips, and the rooting reflex, which involves turning toward any object that touches the cheek (which manages feeding, including the search for a nipple).\u00a0Other reflexes are not necessary for survival, but signify the state of brain and body functions. Some of these include:the babinski reflex (toes fan upward when feet are stroked), the stepping reflex (babies move their legs as if to walk when feet touch a flat surface), the palmar grasp (the infant will tightly grasp any object placed in its palm), and the moro reflex (babies will fling arms out and then bring to chest if they hear a loud noise). These movements occur automatically and are signals that the infant is functioning well neurologically. Within the first several weeks of life, these reflexes are replaced with voluntary movements or motor skills.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nWatch this video to see examples of newborn reflexes.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935264&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=Sv5SsLH70mY&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-fwiuo875-Sv5SsLH70mY\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/ReflexesInNewbornBabies_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"Reflexes in newborn babies\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Motor development<\/h3>\r\nMotor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. This development proceeds in a <strong>cephalocaudal\u00a0<\/strong>(from head-down) and <strong>proximodistal<\/strong>\u00a0(from center-out) direction. For instance, babies first learn to hold their heads up, then sit with assistance, then sit unassisted, followed later by crawling, pulling up, cruising, and then walking.\u00a0As motor skills develop, there are certain developmental milestones that young children should achieve. For each milestone, there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be reached. An example of a developmental milestone is a baby holding up its head. Babies on average are able to hold up their head at 6 weeks old, and 90% of babies achieve this between 3 weeks and 4 months old. If a baby is not holding up his head by 4 months old, he is showing a delay. On average, most babies sit alone at 7 months old. Sitting involves both coordination and muscle strength, and 90% of babies achieve this milestone between 5 and 9 months old (CDC, 2018). If the child is displaying delays on several milestones, that is a reason for concern, and the parent or caregiver should discuss this with the child\u2019s pediatrician. Some developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early intervention.\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nFor more information on developmental milestones, please see the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/ncbddd\/actearly\/milestones\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CDC's Developmental Milestones.<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3><strong>Gross Motor Skills<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3838\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"415\"]<img class=\"wp-image-3838\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2019\/03\/21184810\/2949837455_9ab98ece4f_o-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"Baby grabbing a leaf between his thumb and index finger.\" width=\"415\" height=\"312\" \/> <strong>Figure 1. <\/strong>This baby is working on his pincer grasp.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<span id=\"term610\"><strong>Gross motor skills<\/strong>\u00a0are<\/span>\u00a0voluntary movements that involve the use of large muscle groups and are typically large movements of the arms, legs, head, and torso. These skills begin to develop first.\u00a0Examples include moving to bring the chin up when lying on the stomach, moving the chest up, rocking back and forth on hands and knees.\u00a0But it also includes exploring an object with one\u2019s feet as many babies do, as early as 8 weeks of age, if seated in a carrier or other device that frees the hips.\u00a0This may be easier than reaching for an object with the hands, which requires much more practice (Berk, 2007).\u00a0And sometimes an infant will try to move toward an object while crawling and surprisingly move backward because of the greater amount of strength in the arms than in the legs!\r\n<h3><strong>Fine Motor Skills<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<strong>Fine motor skills<\/strong> are more exact movements of the hands and fingers and include the ability to reach and grasp an object. These\u00a0<span id=\"term609\">skills<\/span>\u00a0focus on the muscles in the fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon).\u00a0Newborns cannot grasp objects voluntarily but do wave their arms toward objects of interest.\u00a0At about 4 months of age, the infant is able to reach for an object, first with both arms and within a few weeks, with only one arm.\u00a0Grasping an object involves the use of the fingers and palm, but no thumbs.\u00a0Stop reading for a moment and try to grasp an object using the fingers and the palm.\u00a0How does that feel?\u00a0How much control do you have over the object?\u00a0If it is a pen or pencil, are you able to write with it?\u00a0Can you draw a picture?\u00a0The answer is, probably not.\u00a0Use of the thumb comes at about 9 months of age when the infant is able to grasp an object using the forefinger and thumb (<strong>the pincer grasp<\/strong>).\u00a0This ability greatly enhances the ability to control and manipulate an object, and infants take great delight in this newfound ability.\u00a0They may spend hours picking up small objects from the floor and placing them in\u00a0containers.\u00a0By 9 months, an infant can also watch a moving object, reach for it as it approaches, and grab it.\u00a0This is quite a complicated set of actions if we remember how difficult this would have been just a few months earlier.\r\n<table><caption>Table 1. Timeline of Developmental Milestones.<strong>[footnote]Rauh, Sherry (n.d.). Is Your Baby on Track? WebMD. Retrieved from\u00a0https:\/\/www.webmd.com\/parenting\/baby\/features\/is-your-baby-on-track#1.\r\n[\/footnote][footnote]Berk, L. (2007).\u00a0<i>Development Through the Lifespan<\/i>\u00a0(4th ed.) (pp 137). Pearson Education. [\/footnote]<\/strong><\/caption>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Age<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Developmental Milestone<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%;\">~2 months<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Can hold head upright on own<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Smiles at sound of familiar voices and follows movement with eyes<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%;\">~3 months<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Can raise head and chest from prone position<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Smiles at others<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Grasps objects<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Rolls from side to back<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%;\">~4-5 months<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Babbles, laughs, and tries to imitate sounds<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Begins to roll from back to side<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 12px;\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%; height: 12px;\">~6 months<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%; height: 12px;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Moves objects from hand to hand<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 12px;\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%; height: 12px;\">~7-8 months<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%; height: 12px;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Can sit without support<\/li>\r\n \t<li>May begin to crawl<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Responds to own name<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Finds partially hidden objects<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 12px;\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%; height: 12px;\">~8-9 months<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%; height: 12px;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Walks while holding on<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Babbles \"mama\" and \"dada\"<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Claps<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 12px;\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%; height: 12px;\">~11-12 months<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%; height: 12px;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Stands alone<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Begins to walk<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Says at least one word<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Can stack two blocks<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 12px;\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%; height: 12px;\">~18 months<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%; height: 12px;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Walks independently<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Drinks from a cup<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Says at least 15 words<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Points to body parts<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 12px;\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%; height: 12px;\">~2 years<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%; height: 12px;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Runs and jumps<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Uses two-word sentences<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Follows simple instructions<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Begins make-believe play<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%;\">~3 years<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Speaks in multi-word sentences<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sorts objects by shape and color<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%;\">~4 years<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Draws circles and squares<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Rides a tricycle<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Gets along with people outside of the family<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Gets dressed<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%;\">~5 years<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Can jump, hop, and skip<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Knows name and address<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Counts ten or more objects<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/fa31cfcd-1fba-4b07-b41f-9e83c8d416eb\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Sensory Development<\/h2>\r\nAs infants and children grow, their senses play a vital role in encouraging and stimulating the mind and in helping them observe their surroundings. Two terms are important to understand when learning about the senses. The first is\u00a0<strong>sensation<\/strong>, or the interaction of information with the sensory receptors. The second is\u00a0<strong>perception<\/strong>, or the process of interpreting what is sensed. It is possible for someone to sense something without perceiving it. Gradually, infants become more adept at perceiving with their senses, making them more aware of their environment and presenting more affordances or opportunities to interact with objects.\r\n<h3><strong>Vision<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nWhat can young infants see, hear, and smell? Newborn infants\u2019 sensory abilities are significant, but their senses are not yet fully developed. Many of a newborn\u2019s innate preferences facilitate interaction with caregivers and other humans. The womb is a dark environment void of visual stimulation.\u00a0Consequently, vision is the most poorly developed sense at birth.\u00a0Newborns typically cannot see further than 8 to 16 inches away from their faces, have difficulty keeping a moving object within their gaze, and can detect contrast more than color differences. If you have ever seen a newborn struggle to see, you can appreciate the cognitive efforts being made to take in visual stimulation and build those neural pathways between the eye and the brain.\r\n\r\nAlthough vision is their least developed sense, newborns already show a preference for faces. When you glance at a person, where do you look?\u00a0Chances are you look into their eyes.\u00a0If so, why?\u00a0It is probably because there is more information there than in other parts of the face.\u00a0Newborns do not scan objects this way; rather, they tend to look at the chin or another less detailed part of the face.\u00a0However, by 2 or 3 months, they will seek more detail when visually exploring an object and begin showing preferences for unusual images over familiar ones, for patterns over solids, faces over patterns, and three-dimensional objects over flat images.\u00a0Newborns have difficulty distinguishing between colors, but within a few months are able to distinguish between colors as well as adults.\u00a0Infants can also sense depth as binocular vision develops at about 2 months of age.\u00a0By 6 months, the infant can perceive depth in pictures as well (Sen, Yonas, &amp; Knill, 2001).\u00a0Infants who have experience crawling and exploring will pay greater attention to visual cues of depth and modify their actions accordingly (Berk, 2007).\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/0b0585be-3ba8-4a56-8df9-870f08a8947a\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3><strong>Hearing<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nThe infant\u2019s sense of hearing is very keen at birth.\u00a0If you remember from an earlier module, this ability to hear is evidenced as soon as the 5th\u00a0month of prenatal development.\u00a0In fact, an infant can distinguish between very similar sounds as early as one month after birth and can distinguish between a familiar and non-familiar voice even earlier.\u00a0Babies who are just a few days old prefer human voices, they will listen to voices longer than sounds that do not involve speech (Vouloumanos &amp; Werker, 2004), and they seem to prefer their mother\u2019s voice over a stranger\u2019s voice (Mills &amp; Melhuish, 1974). In an interesting experiment, 3-week-old babies were given pacifiers that played a recording of the infant\u2019s mother\u2019s voice and of a stranger\u2019s voice. When the infants heard their mother\u2019s voice, they sucked more strongly at the pacifier (Mills &amp; Melhuish, 1974).\u00a0Some of this ability will be lost by 7 or 8 months as a child becomes familiar with the sounds of a particular language and less sensitive to sounds that are part of an unfamiliar language.\r\n<h3><strong>Pain and Touch<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nImmediately after birth, a newborn is sensitive to touch and temperature, and is also sensitive to pain, responding with crying and cardiovascular responses. Newborns who are\u00a0<strong>circumcised <\/strong>(the surgical removal of the foreskin of the penis) without anesthesia experience pain, as demonstrated by increased blood pressure, increased heart rate, decreased oxygen in the blood, and a surge of stress hormones (United States National Library of Medicine, 2016).\u00a0According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), there are medical benefits and risks to circumcision. They do\u00a0not recommend routine circumcision, however, they stated that because of the possible benefits (including prevention from urinary tract infections, penile cancer, and some STDs) parents should have the option to circumcise their sons if they want to (AAP, 2012).[footnote]Circumcision Policy Statement. <em>Pediatrics<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/pediatrics.aappublications.org\/content\/130\/3\/585\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/pediatrics.aappublications.org\/content\/130\/3\/585<\/a>[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nThe sense of touch is acute in infants and is essential to a baby's growth of physical abilities, language and cognitive skills, and socio-emotional competency. Touch not only impacts short-term development during infancy and early childhood but also has long-term effects, suggesting the power of positive gentle touch from birth. Through touch, infants learn about their world, bond with their caregiver, and communicate their needs and wants. Research emphasizes the great benefits of touch for premature babies, but the presence of such contact has been shown to benefit all children (Stack,\u00a0<span class=\"entryAuthor\"><span class=\"hlFld-ContribAuthor\">D. M. (<\/span><\/span>2010).[footnote]Stack,\u00a0<span class=\"entryAuthor\"><span class=\"hlFld-ContribAuthor\">D. M. (<\/span><\/span>2010). Touch and Physical Contact during Infancy: Discovering the Richness of the Forgotten Sense. The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Infant Development, 532-567[\/footnote] In an extreme example, some children in Romania were reared in orphanages in which a single care worker may have had as many as 10 infants to care for at one time. These infants were not often helped or given toys with which to play. As a result, many of them were developmentally delayed (Nelson, Fox, &amp; Zeanah, 2014).[footnote]Nelson, C. A., Fox, N. A., and Zeanah, C. H. (2014). Romania's abandoned children: Deprivation, brain development, and the struggle for recovery. Cambridge, MA, and London, England: Harvard University Press.[\/footnote]\u00a0When we discuss emotional and social development later in this module, you will also see the important role that touch plays in helping infants feel safe and protected, which builds trust and secure attachments between the child and their caregiver.\r\n<h3>Taste and Smell<\/h3>\r\nNot only are infants sensitive to touch, but newborns can also distinguish between sour, bitter, sweet, and salty flavors and show a preference for sweet flavors. They can distinguish between their mother's scent and that of others, and\u00a0prefer the smell of their mothers.\u00a0A\u00a0newborn placed on the mother's chest will inch up to the mother's breast, as it is a potent source of the maternal odor. Even on the first day of life, infants orient to their mother's odor and are soothed, when crying, by their mother's odor (Sullivan et al., 2011).[footnote]Sullivan, R., Perry, R., Sloan, A., Kleinhaus, K., &amp; Burtchen, N. (2011). Infant bonding and attachment to the caregiver: insights from basic and clinical science. Clinics in perinatology, 38(4), 643\u2013655. doi:10.1016\/j.clp.2011.08.011[\/footnote]\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/0088a3eb-3744-494b-a4f1-f074262b7a19\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nThe Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) describes the developmental milestones for children from 2 months through 5 years old. After reviewing the information, take the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/ncbddd\/actearly\/milestones\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CDC's Developmental Milestones\u00a0quiz<\/a>\u00a0to see how well you recall what you\u2019ve learned. If you are a parent with concerns about your child\u2019s development, contact your pediatrician.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]cephalocaudal:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]refers to growth and development that occurs from the head down[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]circumcision:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the surgical removal of the foreskin of the penis[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]fine motor skills:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin. The word \"fine\" in this context means \"small\"[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]gross motor skills: [\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping. The word \"gross\" in this context means \"big\"[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]motor skills:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the word \"motor\" refers to the movement of the muscles. Motor skills refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]perception:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the process of interpreting what is sensed[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]pincer grasp:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a developmental milestone that typically occurs at 9 to 12 months of age; the coordination of the index finger and thumb to hold smaller objects; represents a further development of fine motor skills[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]proximodistal:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]development that occurs from the center or core of the body in an outward direction[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]reflexes:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the inborn, behavioral patterns that develop during uterine life and are fully present at birth. These are involuntary movements (not learned) or actions that are essential for a newborn's survival immediately after birth and include: sucking, swallowing, blinking, urinating, hiccuping, and defecating[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]sensation:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the interaction of information with the sensory receptors[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain gross and fine motor skills in infants<\/li>\n<li>Explain newborn perceptual abilities<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>From Reflexes to Voluntary Movements<\/h2>\n<p>Every basic <strong>motor skill<\/strong> (any movement ability) develops over the first two years of life. The sequence of motor skills first begins with <strong>reflexes<\/strong>. Infants are equipped with a number of reflexes, or involuntary movements in response to stimulation, and some are necessary for survival.\u00a0These include the breathing reflex, or the need to maintain an oxygen supply (this includes hiccups, sneezing, and thrashing reflexes), reflexes that maintain body temperature (crying, shivering, tucking the legs close, and pushing away blankets), the sucking reflex, or automatically sucking on objects that touch their lips, and the rooting reflex, which involves turning toward any object that touches the cheek (which manages feeding, including the search for a nipple).\u00a0Other reflexes are not necessary for survival, but signify the state of brain and body functions. Some of these include:the babinski reflex (toes fan upward when feet are stroked), the stepping reflex (babies move their legs as if to walk when feet touch a flat surface), the palmar grasp (the infant will tightly grasp any object placed in its palm), and the moro reflex (babies will fling arms out and then bring to chest if they hear a loud noise). These movements occur automatically and are signals that the infant is functioning well neurologically. Within the first several weeks of life, these reflexes are replaced with voluntary movements or motor skills.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this video to see examples of newborn reflexes.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935264&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=Sv5SsLH70mY&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-fwiuo875-Sv5SsLH70mY\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/ReflexesInNewbornBabies_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;Reflexes in newborn babies&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Motor development<\/h3>\n<p>Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. This development proceeds in a <strong>cephalocaudal\u00a0<\/strong>(from head-down) and <strong>proximodistal<\/strong>\u00a0(from center-out) direction. For instance, babies first learn to hold their heads up, then sit with assistance, then sit unassisted, followed later by crawling, pulling up, cruising, and then walking.\u00a0As motor skills develop, there are certain developmental milestones that young children should achieve. For each milestone, there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be reached. An example of a developmental milestone is a baby holding up its head. Babies on average are able to hold up their head at 6 weeks old, and 90% of babies achieve this between 3 weeks and 4 months old. If a baby is not holding up his head by 4 months old, he is showing a delay. On average, most babies sit alone at 7 months old. Sitting involves both coordination and muscle strength, and 90% of babies achieve this milestone between 5 and 9 months old (CDC, 2018). If the child is displaying delays on several milestones, that is a reason for concern, and the parent or caregiver should discuss this with the child\u2019s pediatrician. Some developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early intervention.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>For more information on developmental milestones, please see the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/ncbddd\/actearly\/milestones\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CDC&#8217;s Developmental Milestones.<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3><strong>Gross Motor Skills<\/strong><\/h3>\n<div id=\"attachment_3838\" style=\"width: 425px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3838\" class=\"wp-image-3838\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2019\/03\/21184810\/2949837455_9ab98ece4f_o-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"Baby grabbing a leaf between his thumb and index finger.\" width=\"415\" height=\"312\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-3838\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1. <\/strong>This baby is working on his pincer grasp.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"term610\"><strong>Gross motor skills<\/strong>\u00a0are<\/span>\u00a0voluntary movements that involve the use of large muscle groups and are typically large movements of the arms, legs, head, and torso. These skills begin to develop first.\u00a0Examples include moving to bring the chin up when lying on the stomach, moving the chest up, rocking back and forth on hands and knees.\u00a0But it also includes exploring an object with one\u2019s feet as many babies do, as early as 8 weeks of age, if seated in a carrier or other device that frees the hips.\u00a0This may be easier than reaching for an object with the hands, which requires much more practice (Berk, 2007).\u00a0And sometimes an infant will try to move toward an object while crawling and surprisingly move backward because of the greater amount of strength in the arms than in the legs!<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Fine Motor Skills<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p><strong>Fine motor skills<\/strong> are more exact movements of the hands and fingers and include the ability to reach and grasp an object. These\u00a0<span id=\"term609\">skills<\/span>\u00a0focus on the muscles in the fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon).\u00a0Newborns cannot grasp objects voluntarily but do wave their arms toward objects of interest.\u00a0At about 4 months of age, the infant is able to reach for an object, first with both arms and within a few weeks, with only one arm.\u00a0Grasping an object involves the use of the fingers and palm, but no thumbs.\u00a0Stop reading for a moment and try to grasp an object using the fingers and the palm.\u00a0How does that feel?\u00a0How much control do you have over the object?\u00a0If it is a pen or pencil, are you able to write with it?\u00a0Can you draw a picture?\u00a0The answer is, probably not.\u00a0Use of the thumb comes at about 9 months of age when the infant is able to grasp an object using the forefinger and thumb (<strong>the pincer grasp<\/strong>).\u00a0This ability greatly enhances the ability to control and manipulate an object, and infants take great delight in this newfound ability.\u00a0They may spend hours picking up small objects from the floor and placing them in\u00a0containers.\u00a0By 9 months, an infant can also watch a moving object, reach for it as it approaches, and grab it.\u00a0This is quite a complicated set of actions if we remember how difficult this would have been just a few months earlier.<\/p>\n<table>\n<caption>Table 1. Timeline of Developmental Milestones.<strong><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Rauh, Sherry (n.d.). Is Your Baby on Track? WebMD. Retrieved from\u00a0https:\/\/www.webmd.com\/parenting\/baby\/features\/is-your-baby-on-track#1.\" id=\"return-footnote-2292-1\" href=\"#footnote-2292-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Berk, L. (2007).\u00a0Development Through the Lifespan\u00a0(4th ed.) (pp 137). Pearson Education.\" id=\"return-footnote-2292-2\" href=\"#footnote-2292-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/strong><\/caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th scope=\"col\">Age<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Developmental Milestone<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%;\">~2 months<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Can hold head upright on own<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">Smiles at sound of familiar voices and follows movement with eyes<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%;\">~3 months<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Can raise head and chest from prone position<\/li>\n<li>Smiles at others<\/li>\n<li>Grasps objects<\/li>\n<li>Rolls from side to back<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%;\">~4-5 months<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Babbles, laughs, and tries to imitate sounds<\/li>\n<li>Begins to roll from back to side<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 12px;\">\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%; height: 12px;\">~6 months<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%; height: 12px;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Moves objects from hand to hand<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 12px;\">\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%; height: 12px;\">~7-8 months<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%; height: 12px;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Can sit without support<\/li>\n<li>May begin to crawl<\/li>\n<li>Responds to own name<\/li>\n<li>Finds partially hidden objects<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 12px;\">\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%; height: 12px;\">~8-9 months<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%; height: 12px;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Walks while holding on<\/li>\n<li>Babbles &#8220;mama&#8221; and &#8220;dada&#8221;<\/li>\n<li>Claps<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 12px;\">\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%; height: 12px;\">~11-12 months<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%; height: 12px;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Stands alone<\/li>\n<li>Begins to walk<\/li>\n<li>Says at least one word<\/li>\n<li>Can stack two blocks<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 12px;\">\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%; height: 12px;\">~18 months<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%; height: 12px;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Walks independently<\/li>\n<li>Drinks from a cup<\/li>\n<li>Says at least 15 words<\/li>\n<li>Points to body parts<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 12px;\">\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%; height: 12px;\">~2 years<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%; height: 12px;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Runs and jumps<\/li>\n<li>Uses two-word sentences<\/li>\n<li>Follows simple instructions<\/li>\n<li>Begins make-believe play<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%;\">~3 years<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Speaks in multi-word sentences<\/li>\n<li>Sorts objects by shape and color<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%;\">~4 years<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Draws circles and squares<\/li>\n<li>Rides a tricycle<\/li>\n<li>Gets along with people outside of the family<\/li>\n<li>Gets dressed<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 16.3405%;\">~5 years<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 57.9256%;\">\n<ul>\n<li>Can jump, hop, and skip<\/li>\n<li>Knows name and address<\/li>\n<li>Counts ten or more objects<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_fa31cfcd-1fba-4b07-b41f-9e83c8d416eb\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/fa31cfcd-1fba-4b07-b41f-9e83c8d416eb?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_fa31cfcd-1fba-4b07-b41f-9e83c8d416eb\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Sensory Development<\/h2>\n<p>As infants and children grow, their senses play a vital role in encouraging and stimulating the mind and in helping them observe their surroundings. Two terms are important to understand when learning about the senses. The first is\u00a0<strong>sensation<\/strong>, or the interaction of information with the sensory receptors. The second is\u00a0<strong>perception<\/strong>, or the process of interpreting what is sensed. It is possible for someone to sense something without perceiving it. Gradually, infants become more adept at perceiving with their senses, making them more aware of their environment and presenting more affordances or opportunities to interact with objects.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Vision<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>What can young infants see, hear, and smell? Newborn infants\u2019 sensory abilities are significant, but their senses are not yet fully developed. Many of a newborn\u2019s innate preferences facilitate interaction with caregivers and other humans. The womb is a dark environment void of visual stimulation.\u00a0Consequently, vision is the most poorly developed sense at birth.\u00a0Newborns typically cannot see further than 8 to 16 inches away from their faces, have difficulty keeping a moving object within their gaze, and can detect contrast more than color differences. If you have ever seen a newborn struggle to see, you can appreciate the cognitive efforts being made to take in visual stimulation and build those neural pathways between the eye and the brain.<\/p>\n<p>Although vision is their least developed sense, newborns already show a preference for faces. When you glance at a person, where do you look?\u00a0Chances are you look into their eyes.\u00a0If so, why?\u00a0It is probably because there is more information there than in other parts of the face.\u00a0Newborns do not scan objects this way; rather, they tend to look at the chin or another less detailed part of the face.\u00a0However, by 2 or 3 months, they will seek more detail when visually exploring an object and begin showing preferences for unusual images over familiar ones, for patterns over solids, faces over patterns, and three-dimensional objects over flat images.\u00a0Newborns have difficulty distinguishing between colors, but within a few months are able to distinguish between colors as well as adults.\u00a0Infants can also sense depth as binocular vision develops at about 2 months of age.\u00a0By 6 months, the infant can perceive depth in pictures as well (Sen, Yonas, &amp; Knill, 2001).\u00a0Infants who have experience crawling and exploring will pay greater attention to visual cues of depth and modify their actions accordingly (Berk, 2007).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_0b0585be-3ba8-4a56-8df9-870f08a8947a\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/0b0585be-3ba8-4a56-8df9-870f08a8947a?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_0b0585be-3ba8-4a56-8df9-870f08a8947a\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3><strong>Hearing<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>The infant\u2019s sense of hearing is very keen at birth.\u00a0If you remember from an earlier module, this ability to hear is evidenced as soon as the 5th\u00a0month of prenatal development.\u00a0In fact, an infant can distinguish between very similar sounds as early as one month after birth and can distinguish between a familiar and non-familiar voice even earlier.\u00a0Babies who are just a few days old prefer human voices, they will listen to voices longer than sounds that do not involve speech (Vouloumanos &amp; Werker, 2004), and they seem to prefer their mother\u2019s voice over a stranger\u2019s voice (Mills &amp; Melhuish, 1974). In an interesting experiment, 3-week-old babies were given pacifiers that played a recording of the infant\u2019s mother\u2019s voice and of a stranger\u2019s voice. When the infants heard their mother\u2019s voice, they sucked more strongly at the pacifier (Mills &amp; Melhuish, 1974).\u00a0Some of this ability will be lost by 7 or 8 months as a child becomes familiar with the sounds of a particular language and less sensitive to sounds that are part of an unfamiliar language.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Pain and Touch<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>Immediately after birth, a newborn is sensitive to touch and temperature, and is also sensitive to pain, responding with crying and cardiovascular responses. Newborns who are\u00a0<strong>circumcised <\/strong>(the surgical removal of the foreskin of the penis) without anesthesia experience pain, as demonstrated by increased blood pressure, increased heart rate, decreased oxygen in the blood, and a surge of stress hormones (United States National Library of Medicine, 2016).\u00a0According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), there are medical benefits and risks to circumcision. They do\u00a0not recommend routine circumcision, however, they stated that because of the possible benefits (including prevention from urinary tract infections, penile cancer, and some STDs) parents should have the option to circumcise their sons if they want to (AAP, 2012).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Circumcision Policy Statement. Pediatrics. Retrieved from https:\/\/pediatrics.aappublications.org\/content\/130\/3\/585\" id=\"return-footnote-2292-3\" href=\"#footnote-2292-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>The sense of touch is acute in infants and is essential to a baby&#8217;s growth of physical abilities, language and cognitive skills, and socio-emotional competency. Touch not only impacts short-term development during infancy and early childhood but also has long-term effects, suggesting the power of positive gentle touch from birth. Through touch, infants learn about their world, bond with their caregiver, and communicate their needs and wants. Research emphasizes the great benefits of touch for premature babies, but the presence of such contact has been shown to benefit all children (Stack,\u00a0<span class=\"entryAuthor\"><span class=\"hlFld-ContribAuthor\">D. M. (<\/span><\/span>2010).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stack,\u00a0D. M. (2010). Touch and Physical Contact during Infancy: Discovering the Richness of the Forgotten Sense. The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Infant Development, 532-567\" id=\"return-footnote-2292-4\" href=\"#footnote-2292-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a> In an extreme example, some children in Romania were reared in orphanages in which a single care worker may have had as many as 10 infants to care for at one time. These infants were not often helped or given toys with which to play. As a result, many of them were developmentally delayed (Nelson, Fox, &amp; Zeanah, 2014).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Nelson, C. A., Fox, N. A., and Zeanah, C. H. (2014). Romania's abandoned children: Deprivation, brain development, and the struggle for recovery. Cambridge, MA, and London, England: Harvard University Press.\" id=\"return-footnote-2292-5\" href=\"#footnote-2292-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0When we discuss emotional and social development later in this module, you will also see the important role that touch plays in helping infants feel safe and protected, which builds trust and secure attachments between the child and their caregiver.<\/p>\n<h3>Taste and Smell<\/h3>\n<p>Not only are infants sensitive to touch, but newborns can also distinguish between sour, bitter, sweet, and salty flavors and show a preference for sweet flavors. They can distinguish between their mother&#8217;s scent and that of others, and\u00a0prefer the smell of their mothers.\u00a0A\u00a0newborn placed on the mother&#8217;s chest will inch up to the mother&#8217;s breast, as it is a potent source of the maternal odor. Even on the first day of life, infants orient to their mother&#8217;s odor and are soothed, when crying, by their mother&#8217;s odor (Sullivan et al., 2011).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Sullivan, R., Perry, R., Sloan, A., Kleinhaus, K., &amp; Burtchen, N. (2011). Infant bonding and attachment to the caregiver: insights from basic and clinical science. Clinics in perinatology, 38(4), 643\u2013655. doi:10.1016\/j.clp.2011.08.011\" id=\"return-footnote-2292-6\" href=\"#footnote-2292-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_0088a3eb-3744-494b-a4f1-f074262b7a19\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/0088a3eb-3744-494b-a4f1-f074262b7a19?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_0088a3eb-3744-494b-a4f1-f074262b7a19\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) describes the developmental milestones for children from 2 months through 5 years old. After reviewing the information, take the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/ncbddd\/actearly\/milestones\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CDC&#8217;s Developmental Milestones\u00a0quiz<\/a>\u00a0to see how well you recall what you\u2019ve learned. If you are a parent with concerns about your child\u2019s development, contact your pediatrician.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>cephalocaudal:<\/dt>\n<dd>refers to growth and development that occurs from the head down<\/dd>\n<dt>circumcision:<\/dt>\n<dd>the surgical removal of the foreskin of the penis<\/dd>\n<dt>fine motor skills:<\/dt>\n<dd>physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin. The word &#8220;fine&#8221; in this context means &#8220;small&#8221;<\/dd>\n<dt>gross motor skills: <\/dt>\n<dd>physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping. The word &#8220;gross&#8221; in this context means &#8220;big&#8221;<\/dd>\n<dt>motor skills:<\/dt>\n<dd>the word &#8220;motor&#8221; refers to the movement of the muscles. Motor skills refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects<\/dd>\n<dt>perception:<\/dt>\n<dd>the process of interpreting what is sensed<\/dd>\n<dt>pincer grasp:<\/dt>\n<dd>a developmental milestone that typically occurs at 9 to 12 months of age; the coordination of the index finger and thumb to hold smaller objects; represents a further development of fine motor skills<\/dd>\n<dt>proximodistal:<\/dt>\n<dd>development that occurs from the center or core of the body in an outward direction<\/dd>\n<dt>reflexes:<\/dt>\n<dd>the inborn, behavioral patterns that develop during uterine life and are fully present at birth. These are involuntary movements (not learned) or actions that are essential for a newborn&#8217;s survival immediately after birth and include: sucking, swallowing, blinking, urinating, hiccuping, and defecating<\/dd>\n<dt>sensation:<\/dt>\n<dd>the interaction of information with the sensory receptors<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-2292\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Laura Overstreet. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\">http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Tera Jones for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Childhood: Physical and Cognitive Development. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/reading-childhood\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/reading-childhood\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Link to Learning CDC activity. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/what-is-lifespan-development\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/what-is-lifespan-development\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Developing pincer grasp.. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Beth Nazario. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/5uEFUt\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/5uEFUt<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Reflexes in newborn babies. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Bernadette Bos. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Sv5SsLH70mY\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Sv5SsLH70mY<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-2292-1\">Rauh, Sherry (n.d.). Is Your Baby on Track? WebMD. Retrieved from\u00a0https:\/\/www.webmd.com\/parenting\/baby\/features\/is-your-baby-on-track#1.\r\n <a href=\"#return-footnote-2292-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-2292-2\">Berk, L. (2007).\u00a0<i>Development Through the Lifespan<\/i>\u00a0(4th ed.) (pp 137). Pearson Education.  <a href=\"#return-footnote-2292-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-2292-3\">Circumcision Policy Statement. <em>Pediatrics<\/em>. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/pediatrics.aappublications.org\/content\/130\/3\/585\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/pediatrics.aappublications.org\/content\/130\/3\/585<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-2292-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-2292-4\">Stack,\u00a0<span class=\"entryAuthor\"><span class=\"hlFld-ContribAuthor\">D. M. (<\/span><\/span>2010). Touch and Physical Contact during Infancy: Discovering the Richness of the Forgotten Sense. The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Infant Development, 532-567 <a href=\"#return-footnote-2292-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-2292-5\">Nelson, C. A., Fox, N. A., and Zeanah, C. H. (2014). Romania's abandoned children: Deprivation, brain development, and the struggle for recovery. Cambridge, MA, and London, England: Harvard University Press. <a href=\"#return-footnote-2292-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-2292-6\">Sullivan, R., Perry, R., Sloan, A., Kleinhaus, K., &amp; Burtchen, N. (2011). Infant bonding and attachment to the caregiver: insights from basic and clinical science. 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