{"id":2416,"date":"2019-03-12T19:28:59","date_gmt":"2019-03-12T19:28:59","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=2416"},"modified":"2024-04-30T19:38:04","modified_gmt":"2024-04-30T19:38:04","slug":"relationships-and-family-life-in-middle-adulthood","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/chapter\/relationships-and-family-life-in-middle-adulthood\/","title":{"raw":"Relationships and Family Life in Middle Adulthood","rendered":"Relationships and Family Life in Middle Adulthood"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe the link between intimacy and subjective well-being<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Discuss issues related to family life in middle adulthood<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"types-of-relationships\">Types of Relationships<\/h2>\r\n<h3>Intimate Relationships<\/h3>\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">It makes sense to consider the various types of relationships in our lives when trying to determine just how relationships impact our well-being. For example, would you expect a person to derive the same happiness from an ex-spouse as from a child or coworker? Among the most important relationships for most people is their long-time romantic partner. Most researchers begin their investigation of this topic by focusing on intimate relationships because they are the closest form of social bond. Intimacy is more than just physical in nature; it also entails psychological closeness. Research findings suggest that having a single\u00a0confidante\u2014a person with whom you can be authentic and trust not to exploit your secrets and vulnerabilities\u2014is more important to happiness than having a large social network (Taylor, 2010).<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Another important aspect is the distinction between formal and informal relationships. Formal relationships are those that are bound by the rules of politeness. In most cultures, for instance, young people treat older people with formal respect by avoiding profanity and slang when interacting with them. Similarly, workplace relationships tend to be more formal, as do relationships with new acquaintances. Formal connections are generally less relaxed because they require a bit more work, demanding that we exert more self-control. Contrast these connections with informal relationships\u2014friends, lovers, siblings, or others with whom you can relax. We can express our true feelings and opinions in these informal relationships, using the language that comes most naturally to us, and generally be more authentic. Because of this, it makes sense that more intimate relationships\u2014those that are more comfortable and in which you can be more vulnerable\u2014might be the most likely to translate to happiness.<\/span>\r\n<h3>Marriage and Happiness<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_904\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"432\"]<img class=\"wp-image-904\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2016\/03\/16171759\/17066-an-asian-couple-smiling-at-each-other-outdoors-pv.jpg\" alt=\"Happy couple smiling at each other.\" width=\"432\" height=\"287\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Relationships that allow us to be our authentic self bring the most happiness.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">One of the most common ways that researchers often begin to investigate intimacy is by looking at marital status. The well-being of married people is compared to that of people who are single or have never been married. In other research, married people are compared to people who are divorced or widowed (Lucas &amp; Dyrenforth, 2005). Researchers have found that the transition from singlehood to marriage brings about an increase in subjective well-being (Haring-Hidore, Stock, Okun, &amp; Witter, 1985;\u00a0Lucas, 2005;\u00a0Williams, 2003). In fact, this finding is one of the strongest in social science research on personal relationships over the past quarter of a century. <\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\"> As is usually the case, the situation is more complex than might initially appear. As a marriage progresses, there is some evidence for a regression to a <strong>hedonic set-point\u2014<\/strong>that is, most individuals have a set happiness point or level, and that both good and bad life events\u2014 marriage, bereavement, unemployment, births and so on\u2014have some effect for a period of time, but over many months, they will return to that set-point. One of the best studies in this area is that of Luhmann et al (2012), who report a gradual decline in subjective well-being after a few years, especially in the component of affective well-being. A<\/span><span style=\"color: #333333;\">dverse events obviously have an effect on subjective well-being and happiness, and these effects can be stronger than the positive effects of being married in some cases (Lucas, 2005).<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Although research frequently points to marriage being associated with higher rates of happiness, this does not guarantee that getting married will make you happy! The quality of one\u2019s marriage matters greatly. When a person remains in a problematic marriage, it takes an emotional toll. Indeed, a large body of research shows that people\u2019s overall life satisfaction is affected by their satisfaction with their marriage (Carr, Freedman, Cornman, Schwarz, 2014;\u00a0Dush, Taylor, &amp; Kroeger, 2008;\u00a0Karney, 2001;\u00a0Luhmann, Hofmann, Eid, &amp; Lucas, 2012;\u00a0Proulx, Helms, &amp; Buehler, 2007). The lower a person\u2019s self-reported level of marital quality, the more likely they are to report depression (Bookwala, 2012). In fact, longitudinal studies\u2014those that follow the same people over a period of time\u2014show that as marital quality declines, depressive symptoms increase (Fincham, Beach, Harold, &amp; Osborne, 1997;\u00a0Karney, 2001). Proulx and colleagues (2007) arrived at this same conclusion after a systematic review of 66 cross-sectional and 27 longitudinal studies.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\nMarital satisfaction has peaks and valleys during the course of the life cycle. Rates of happiness are highest in the years prior to the birth of the first child. It hits a low point with the coming of children. Relationships during this stage typically become more traditional and there are more financial hardships and stress in living. Children bring new expectations to the marital relationship.\u00a0Two people who are comfortable with their roles as partners may find the added parental duties and expectations more challenging to meet.\u00a0Some\u00a0couples elect not to have children in order to have more time and resources for the marriage.\u00a0These\u00a0child-free\u00a0couples are happy keeping their time and attention on their partners, careers, and interests.\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">What is it about bad marriages, or bad relationships in general, that take such a toll on well-being? Research has pointed to conflict between partners as a major factor leading to lower subjective well-being (Gere &amp; Schimmack, 2011). This makes sense. Negative relationships are linked to ineffective social support (Reblin, Uchino, &amp; Smith, 2010) and are a source of stress (Holt-Lunstad, Uchino, Smith, &amp; Hicks, 2007). In more extreme cases, physical and psychological abuse can be detrimental to well-being (Follingstad, Rutledge, Berg, Hause, &amp; Polek, 1990). Victims of abuse sometimes feel shame, lose their sense of self, and become less happy and prone to depression and anxiety (Arias &amp; Pape, 1999). However, the unhappiness and dissatisfaction that occur in abusive relationships tend to dissipate once the relationships end. (Arriaga, Capezza,\u00a0Goodfriend,\u00a0Rayl &amp; Sands, 2013).<\/span>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Typology of Marriage<\/h3>\r\nOne way marriages vary is with regard to the reason the partners are married. Some marriages have\u00a0intrinsic\u00a0value: the partners are together because they enjoy, love, and value one another. Marriage is not thought of as a means to another end, instead it is regarded as an end in itself. These partners look for someone they are drawn to, and with whom they feel a close and intense relationship. Other marriages called\u00a0utilitarian\u00a0marriages are unions entered into primarily for practical reasons. For example, the marriage brings financial security, children, social approval, housekeeping, political favor, a good car, a great house, and so on.\r\n\r\nThere have been a few attempts to establish a typological framework for marriages. The best-known is that by Olson (1993), who referred to five typical kinds of marriage. Using a sample of 6,267 couples, Olson &amp; Fowers (1993) identified eleven relationship domains that covered areas related to relationship satisfaction and more functional areas related to marriage. So, five of the eleven domains included areas such as marital satisfaction, communication, and things like financial management, parenting, and egalitarian roles. Using these eleven areas they came up with five kinds of marriage:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Vitalized<\/strong>. Very high relationship quality. Tend to belong in a higher income bracket. Happy with their spouse across all areas\u2014personality, communication, roles, and expectations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Harmonious relationships<\/strong>. These marriages have some areas of tension and disagreement but there is still broad agreement on major issues. Lack of agreement on parenting was the primary feature of this group, although the couples still scored highly on relationship quality.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Traditional marriages<\/strong>. These marriages show much less emphasis on emotional closeness, but still score slightly above average on connection. There are high levels of compatibility in relation to parenting.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Conflicted<\/strong>. These marriages accomplish functional goals such as parenting but are marked by a great deal of interpersonal disagreement. Communication and conflict resolution scores are extremely low.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Devitalized. <\/strong>These marriages have low scores across all eleven areas\u2014little interpersonal closeness and little agreement on family roles.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nOne aspect of this early study is the link between marital satisfaction and income\/college education. Olson &amp; Fowers (1993) were one of the first studies to point to this link, which is now commonly accepted. The less well-off are more prone to divorce, as are those with less college-level education. Income and college education are of course linked, and there is now increasing concern that marital dissolution and broader patterns of social inequality are now inextricably linked. [footnote] Olson, D. H., &amp; Fowers, B. J. (1993). Five Types of Marriage: An Empirical Typology Based on ENRICH. <em>The Family Journal<\/em>, 1(3), 196\u2013207. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1066480793013002[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/d86902b0-6548-48cb-9ee0-7aed77f92dbc\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>The Family Life Cycle<\/h3>\r\nTo better understand patterns of family life and the changes in roles and expectations as a family ages, researchers have theorized about typical stages of family life. Read more about the family life cycle in the following interactive activity.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/content\/1290831078585248368\/embed\" width=\"1088\" height=\"637\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><script src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/js\/h5p-resizer.js\" charset=\"UTF-8\"><\/script>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Marital Communication<\/h2>\r\nAdvice on how to improve one\u2019s marriage is centuries old.\u00a0One of today\u2019s experts on marital communication is John\u00a0Gottman. Gottman differs from many marriage counselors in his belief that having a good marriage does not depend on compatibility, rather, the way that partners communicate with one another is crucial.\u00a0At the University of Washington in Seattle,\u00a0Gottman\u00a0has measured the physiological responses of thousands of couples as they discuss issues which have led to disagreements.\u00a0Fidgeting in one\u2019s chair, leaning closer to or further away from the partner while\u00a0speaking, and increases in respiration and heart rate are all recorded and analyzed, along with videotaped recordings of the partners\u2019 exchanges.\r\n\r\nGottman\u00a0believes he can accurately predict whether or not a couple will stay together by analyzing their communication.\u00a0In marriages destined to fail, partners engage in the \u201cmarriage killers\u201d such as contempt, criticism, defensiveness, and stonewalling.\u00a0Each of these undermines the politeness and respect that healthy marriages require.\u00a0According to Gottman, stonewalling, or shutting someone out, is the strongest sign that a relationship is destined to fail. Perhaps the most interesting aspect of Gottman's work is the emphasis on the fact that marriage is about constant negotiation rather than conflict resolution.\r\n\r\nWhat Gottman terms perpetual problems, are responsible for 69% of conflicts within marriage. For example, if someone in a couple has said, \"I am so sick of arguing over this,\" then that may be a sign of a perpetual problem. While this may seem problematic, Gottman argues that couples can still be connected despite these perpetual problems if they can laugh about it, treat it as a \"third thing\" (not reducible to the perspective of either party), and recognize that these are part of relationships that need to be aired and dealt with as best you can. It is somewhat refreshing to hear that differences lie at the heart of marriage, rather than a rationale for its dissolution!\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nListen\u00a0to NPR's\u00a0<em><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thisamericanlife.org\/radio-archives\/episode\/261\/the-sanctity-of-marriage\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Act One: What Really Happens in Marriage<\/a><\/em> to hear John Gottman\u00a0talk about his work.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"parenting-in-later-life\">Parenting in Later Life<\/h2>\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Just because children grow up does not mean their family stops being a family, rather the specific roles and expectations of its members change over time.\u00a0One major change comes when a child reaches adulthood and moves away. When exactly children leave home varies greatly depending on societal norms and expectations, as well as on economic conditions such as employment opportunities and affordable housing options. Some parents may experience sadness when their adult children leave the home\u2014a situation called an <strong>empty nest<\/strong>.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Many parents are also finding that their grown children are struggling to launch into independence. It\u2019s an increasingly common story: a child goes off to college and, upon graduation, is unable to find steady employment. In such instances, a frequent outcome is for the child to return home, becoming a \u201cboomerang kid.\u201d The\u00a0boomerang generation, as the phenomenon has come to be known, refers to young adults, mostly between the ages of 25 and 34, who return home to live with their parents while they strive for stability in their lives\u2014often in terms of finances, living arrangements, and sometimes romantic relationships. These boomerang kids can be both good and bad for families. Within American families, 48% of boomerang kids report having paid rent to their parents, and 89% say they help out with household expenses\u2014a win for everyone (Parker, 2012). On the other hand, 24% of boomerang kids report that returning home hurts their relationship with their parents (Parker, 2012). For better or for worse, the number of children returning home has been increasing around the world.\u00a0<\/span>The Pew Research Center (2016) reported that the most common living arrangement for people aged 18-34 was living with their parents (32.1%).[footnote]Fry, Richard. For First Time in Modern Era (2016). Living With Parents Edges Out Other Living Arrangements for 18- to 34-Year-Olds. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.pewsocialtrends.org\/2016\/05\/24\/for-first-time-in-modern-era-living-with-parents-edges-out-other-living-arrangements-for-18-to-34-year-olds\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.pewsocialtrends.org\/2016\/05\/24\/for-first-time-in-modern-era-living-with-parents-edges-out-other-living-arrangements-for-18-to-34-year-olds\/<\/a>.[\/footnote]\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/ef0f3170-d0a1-4e3b-9667-54d010256590\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nAdult children\u00a0typically maintain frequent contact with their parents, if for no other reason, money and advice.\u00a0Attitudes toward one\u2019s parents may become more accepting and forgiving, as parents are seen in a more objective way, as people with good points and bad.\u00a0As adults children can continue to be subjected to criticism, ridicule, and abuse at the hand of parents.\u00a0How long are we \u201cadult children\u201d?\u00a0For as long as our parents are living, we continue in the role of son or daughter.\u00a0(I had a neighbor in her nineties who would tell me her \u201cboys\u201d were coming to see her this weekend.\u00a0Her boys were in their 70s-but they were still her boys!)\u00a0But after one's parents are gone, the adult is no longer a child; as one 40 year old man explained after the death of his father, \u201cI\u2019ll never be a kid again.\u201d\r\n<h2>Family Issues and Considerations<\/h2>\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">In addition to middle-aged parents spending more time, money, and energy taking care of their adult children, they are also increasingly taking care of their own aging and ailing parents. Middle-aged people in this set of circumstances are commonly referred to as the\u00a0<strong>sandwich generation<\/strong>\u00a0(Dukhovnov &amp; Zagheni, 2015). Of course, cultural norms and practices again come into play. In some Asian and Hispanic cultures, the expectation is that adult children are supposed to take care of aging parents and parents-in-law. In other Western cultures\u2014cultures that emphasize individuality and self-sustainability\u2014the expectation has historically been that people either\u00a0age in place, modifying their home and receiving services to allow them to continue to live independently, or enter long-term care facilities. However, given financial constraints, many families find themselves taking in and caring for their aging parents, increasing the number of\u00a0multigenerational homes\u00a0around the world.<\/span>\r\n\r\nBeing a midlife child often involves\u00a0<strong>kinkeeping<\/strong>; organizing events and communication in order to maintain family ties. This role was first defined by Carolyn Rosenthal (1985). Kinkeepers\u00a0are often midlife daughters (they are the person who tells you what food to bring to a gathering, or makes arrangement for a family reunion). They can often function as \"managers\" who maintain family ties and lines of communication. This is true for both large nuclear families, reconstituted, and multi-generational families. Rosenthal found that over half of the families she sampled were capable of identifying the individual who performed this role. Often adults at this stage of their lives are pressed into caregiving roles. Often referred to as the \"sandwich generation\", they are still looking out for their own children while simultaneously caring for older parents. Given shifts in longevity and increasing costs for professional care of older adults, this role will likely expand, placing ever greater pressure on careers.\r\n<h2>Abuse in Family Life<\/h2>\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Abuse can occur in multiple forms and across all family relationships. Breiding, Basile, Smith, Black, &amp; Mahendra (2015) define the forms of abuse as:<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\"><strong>Physical abuse:<\/strong>\u00a0the use of intentional physical force to cause harm. Scratching, pushing, shoving, throwing, grabbing, biting, choking, shaking, slapping, punching, and hitting are common forms of physical abuse<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\"><strong>Sexual abuse:<\/strong>\u00a0the act of forcing someone to participate in a sex act against their will. Such abuse is often referred to as sexual assault or rape. A marital relationship does not grant anyone the right to demand sex or sexual activity from anyone, even a spouse<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\"><strong>Psychological abuse:<\/strong>\u00a0aggressive behavior that is intended to control someone else. Such abuse can include threats of physical or sexual abuse, manipulation, bullying, and stalking.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Abuse between partners is referred to as\u00a0intimate partner violence; however, such abuse can also occur between a parent and child (child abuse), adult children and their aging parents (called Elder Abuse), and even between siblings.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">The most common form of abuse between parents and children is that of neglect.\u00a0Neglect\u00a0refers to a family\u2019s failure to provide for a child\u2019s basic physical, emotional, medical, or educational needs (DePanfilis, 2006). Harry Potter\u2019s aunt and uncle, as well as Cinderella\u2019s stepmother, could all be prosecuted for neglect in the real world.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Abuse is a complex issue, especially within families. There are many reasons people become abusers: poverty, stress, and substance abuse are common characteristics shared by abusers, although abuse can happen in any family. There are also many reasons adults stay in abusive relationships: (a)\u00a0learned helplessness\u00a0(the abused person believing they have no control over the situation); (b) the belief that the abuser can\/will change; (c) shame, guilt, self-blame, and\/or fear; and (d) economic dependence. All of these factors can play a role.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Children who experience abuse may \u201cact out\u201d or otherwise respond in a variety of unhealthy ways. These include acts of self-destruction, withdrawal, and aggression, as well as struggles with depression, anxiety, and academic performance. Researchers have found that abused children\u2019s brains may produce higher levels of stress hormones. These hormones can lead to decreased brain development, lower stress thresholds, suppressed immune responses, and lifelong difficulties with learning and memory (Middlebrooks &amp; Audage, 2008).<\/span>\r\n<h2>Happy Healthy Families<\/h2>\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Our families play a crucial role in our overall development and happiness. They can support and validate us, but they can also criticize and burden us. For better or worse, we all have a family. In closing, here are strategies you can use to increase the happiness of your family:<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Teach morality\u2014fostering a sense of moral development in children can promote well-being (Damon, 2004).<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Savor the good\u2014celebrate each other\u2019s successes (Gable, Gonzaga &amp; Strachman, 2006).<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Use the extended family network\u2014family members of all ages, including older siblings and grandparents, who can act as caregivers can promote family well-being (Armstrong, Birnie-Lefcovitch &amp; Ungar, 2005).<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Create family identity\u2014share inside jokes, fond memories, and frame the story of the family (McAdams, 1993).<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Forgive\u2014Don\u2019t hold grudges against one another (McCullough, Worthington &amp; Rachal, 1997).<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]kinkeeping:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]\"emotion work\", often undertaken by women, to foster and maintain family relationships[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]physical abuse:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the use of intentional physical force to cause harm[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]psychological abuse:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]aggressive behavior that is intended to control someone else[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]sandwich generation:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a cohort of people charged with the dual responsibility of looking after older parents while raising their own children[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]sexual abuse:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the act of forcing someone to participate in a sex act against their will[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe the link between intimacy and subjective well-being<\/li>\n<li>Discuss issues related to family life in middle adulthood<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"types-of-relationships\">Types of Relationships<\/h2>\n<h3>Intimate Relationships<\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">It makes sense to consider the various types of relationships in our lives when trying to determine just how relationships impact our well-being. For example, would you expect a person to derive the same happiness from an ex-spouse as from a child or coworker? Among the most important relationships for most people is their long-time romantic partner. Most researchers begin their investigation of this topic by focusing on intimate relationships because they are the closest form of social bond. Intimacy is more than just physical in nature; it also entails psychological closeness. Research findings suggest that having a single\u00a0confidante\u2014a person with whom you can be authentic and trust not to exploit your secrets and vulnerabilities\u2014is more important to happiness than having a large social network (Taylor, 2010).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Another important aspect is the distinction between formal and informal relationships. Formal relationships are those that are bound by the rules of politeness. In most cultures, for instance, young people treat older people with formal respect by avoiding profanity and slang when interacting with them. Similarly, workplace relationships tend to be more formal, as do relationships with new acquaintances. Formal connections are generally less relaxed because they require a bit more work, demanding that we exert more self-control. Contrast these connections with informal relationships\u2014friends, lovers, siblings, or others with whom you can relax. We can express our true feelings and opinions in these informal relationships, using the language that comes most naturally to us, and generally be more authentic. Because of this, it makes sense that more intimate relationships\u2014those that are more comfortable and in which you can be more vulnerable\u2014might be the most likely to translate to happiness.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3>Marriage and Happiness<\/h3>\n<div id=\"attachment_904\" style=\"width: 442px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-904\" class=\"wp-image-904\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2016\/03\/16171759\/17066-an-asian-couple-smiling-at-each-other-outdoors-pv.jpg\" alt=\"Happy couple smiling at each other.\" width=\"432\" height=\"287\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-904\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Relationships that allow us to be our authentic self bring the most happiness.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">One of the most common ways that researchers often begin to investigate intimacy is by looking at marital status. The well-being of married people is compared to that of people who are single or have never been married. In other research, married people are compared to people who are divorced or widowed (Lucas &amp; Dyrenforth, 2005). Researchers have found that the transition from singlehood to marriage brings about an increase in subjective well-being (Haring-Hidore, Stock, Okun, &amp; Witter, 1985;\u00a0Lucas, 2005;\u00a0Williams, 2003). In fact, this finding is one of the strongest in social science research on personal relationships over the past quarter of a century. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\"> As is usually the case, the situation is more complex than might initially appear. As a marriage progresses, there is some evidence for a regression to a <strong>hedonic set-point\u2014<\/strong>that is, most individuals have a set happiness point or level, and that both good and bad life events\u2014 marriage, bereavement, unemployment, births and so on\u2014have some effect for a period of time, but over many months, they will return to that set-point. One of the best studies in this area is that of Luhmann et al (2012), who report a gradual decline in subjective well-being after a few years, especially in the component of affective well-being. A<\/span><span style=\"color: #333333;\">dverse events obviously have an effect on subjective well-being and happiness, and these effects can be stronger than the positive effects of being married in some cases (Lucas, 2005).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Although research frequently points to marriage being associated with higher rates of happiness, this does not guarantee that getting married will make you happy! The quality of one\u2019s marriage matters greatly. When a person remains in a problematic marriage, it takes an emotional toll. Indeed, a large body of research shows that people\u2019s overall life satisfaction is affected by their satisfaction with their marriage (Carr, Freedman, Cornman, Schwarz, 2014;\u00a0Dush, Taylor, &amp; Kroeger, 2008;\u00a0Karney, 2001;\u00a0Luhmann, Hofmann, Eid, &amp; Lucas, 2012;\u00a0Proulx, Helms, &amp; Buehler, 2007). The lower a person\u2019s self-reported level of marital quality, the more likely they are to report depression (Bookwala, 2012). In fact, longitudinal studies\u2014those that follow the same people over a period of time\u2014show that as marital quality declines, depressive symptoms increase (Fincham, Beach, Harold, &amp; Osborne, 1997;\u00a0Karney, 2001). Proulx and colleagues (2007) arrived at this same conclusion after a systematic review of 66 cross-sectional and 27 longitudinal studies.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Marital satisfaction has peaks and valleys during the course of the life cycle. Rates of happiness are highest in the years prior to the birth of the first child. It hits a low point with the coming of children. Relationships during this stage typically become more traditional and there are more financial hardships and stress in living. Children bring new expectations to the marital relationship.\u00a0Two people who are comfortable with their roles as partners may find the added parental duties and expectations more challenging to meet.\u00a0Some\u00a0couples elect not to have children in order to have more time and resources for the marriage.\u00a0These\u00a0child-free\u00a0couples are happy keeping their time and attention on their partners, careers, and interests.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">What is it about bad marriages, or bad relationships in general, that take such a toll on well-being? Research has pointed to conflict between partners as a major factor leading to lower subjective well-being (Gere &amp; Schimmack, 2011). This makes sense. Negative relationships are linked to ineffective social support (Reblin, Uchino, &amp; Smith, 2010) and are a source of stress (Holt-Lunstad, Uchino, Smith, &amp; Hicks, 2007). In more extreme cases, physical and psychological abuse can be detrimental to well-being (Follingstad, Rutledge, Berg, Hause, &amp; Polek, 1990). Victims of abuse sometimes feel shame, lose their sense of self, and become less happy and prone to depression and anxiety (Arias &amp; Pape, 1999). However, the unhappiness and dissatisfaction that occur in abusive relationships tend to dissipate once the relationships end. (Arriaga, Capezza,\u00a0Goodfriend,\u00a0Rayl &amp; Sands, 2013).<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Typology of Marriage<\/h3>\n<p>One way marriages vary is with regard to the reason the partners are married. Some marriages have\u00a0intrinsic\u00a0value: the partners are together because they enjoy, love, and value one another. Marriage is not thought of as a means to another end, instead it is regarded as an end in itself. These partners look for someone they are drawn to, and with whom they feel a close and intense relationship. Other marriages called\u00a0utilitarian\u00a0marriages are unions entered into primarily for practical reasons. For example, the marriage brings financial security, children, social approval, housekeeping, political favor, a good car, a great house, and so on.<\/p>\n<p>There have been a few attempts to establish a typological framework for marriages. The best-known is that by Olson (1993), who referred to five typical kinds of marriage. Using a sample of 6,267 couples, Olson &amp; Fowers (1993) identified eleven relationship domains that covered areas related to relationship satisfaction and more functional areas related to marriage. So, five of the eleven domains included areas such as marital satisfaction, communication, and things like financial management, parenting, and egalitarian roles. Using these eleven areas they came up with five kinds of marriage:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Vitalized<\/strong>. Very high relationship quality. Tend to belong in a higher income bracket. Happy with their spouse across all areas\u2014personality, communication, roles, and expectations.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Harmonious relationships<\/strong>. These marriages have some areas of tension and disagreement but there is still broad agreement on major issues. Lack of agreement on parenting was the primary feature of this group, although the couples still scored highly on relationship quality.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Traditional marriages<\/strong>. These marriages show much less emphasis on emotional closeness, but still score slightly above average on connection. There are high levels of compatibility in relation to parenting.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Conflicted<\/strong>. These marriages accomplish functional goals such as parenting but are marked by a great deal of interpersonal disagreement. Communication and conflict resolution scores are extremely low.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Devitalized. <\/strong>These marriages have low scores across all eleven areas\u2014little interpersonal closeness and little agreement on family roles.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>One aspect of this early study is the link between marital satisfaction and income\/college education. Olson &amp; Fowers (1993) were one of the first studies to point to this link, which is now commonly accepted. The less well-off are more prone to divorce, as are those with less college-level education. Income and college education are of course linked, and there is now increasing concern that marital dissolution and broader patterns of social inequality are now inextricably linked. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Olson, D. H., &amp; Fowers, B. J. (1993). Five Types of Marriage: An Empirical Typology Based on ENRICH. The Family Journal, 1(3), 196\u2013207. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1066480793013002\" id=\"return-footnote-2416-1\" href=\"#footnote-2416-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_d86902b0-6548-48cb-9ee0-7aed77f92dbc\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/d86902b0-6548-48cb-9ee0-7aed77f92dbc?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_d86902b0-6548-48cb-9ee0-7aed77f92dbc\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>The Family Life Cycle<\/h3>\n<p>To better understand patterns of family life and the changes in roles and expectations as a family ages, researchers have theorized about typical stages of family life. Read more about the family life cycle in the following interactive activity.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/content\/1290831078585248368\/embed\" width=\"1088\" height=\"637\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><script src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/js\/h5p-resizer.js\" charset=\"UTF-8\"><\/script><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Marital Communication<\/h2>\n<p>Advice on how to improve one\u2019s marriage is centuries old.\u00a0One of today\u2019s experts on marital communication is John\u00a0Gottman. Gottman differs from many marriage counselors in his belief that having a good marriage does not depend on compatibility, rather, the way that partners communicate with one another is crucial.\u00a0At the University of Washington in Seattle,\u00a0Gottman\u00a0has measured the physiological responses of thousands of couples as they discuss issues which have led to disagreements.\u00a0Fidgeting in one\u2019s chair, leaning closer to or further away from the partner while\u00a0speaking, and increases in respiration and heart rate are all recorded and analyzed, along with videotaped recordings of the partners\u2019 exchanges.<\/p>\n<p>Gottman\u00a0believes he can accurately predict whether or not a couple will stay together by analyzing their communication.\u00a0In marriages destined to fail, partners engage in the \u201cmarriage killers\u201d such as contempt, criticism, defensiveness, and stonewalling.\u00a0Each of these undermines the politeness and respect that healthy marriages require.\u00a0According to Gottman, stonewalling, or shutting someone out, is the strongest sign that a relationship is destined to fail. Perhaps the most interesting aspect of Gottman&#8217;s work is the emphasis on the fact that marriage is about constant negotiation rather than conflict resolution.<\/p>\n<p>What Gottman terms perpetual problems, are responsible for 69% of conflicts within marriage. For example, if someone in a couple has said, &#8220;I am so sick of arguing over this,&#8221; then that may be a sign of a perpetual problem. While this may seem problematic, Gottman argues that couples can still be connected despite these perpetual problems if they can laugh about it, treat it as a &#8220;third thing&#8221; (not reducible to the perspective of either party), and recognize that these are part of relationships that need to be aired and dealt with as best you can. It is somewhat refreshing to hear that differences lie at the heart of marriage, rather than a rationale for its dissolution!<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Listen\u00a0to NPR&#8217;s\u00a0<em><a href=\"http:\/\/www.thisamericanlife.org\/radio-archives\/episode\/261\/the-sanctity-of-marriage\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Act One: What Really Happens in Marriage<\/a><\/em> to hear John Gottman\u00a0talk about his work.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"parenting-in-later-life\">Parenting in Later Life<\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Just because children grow up does not mean their family stops being a family, rather the specific roles and expectations of its members change over time.\u00a0One major change comes when a child reaches adulthood and moves away. When exactly children leave home varies greatly depending on societal norms and expectations, as well as on economic conditions such as employment opportunities and affordable housing options. Some parents may experience sadness when their adult children leave the home\u2014a situation called an <strong>empty nest<\/strong>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Many parents are also finding that their grown children are struggling to launch into independence. It\u2019s an increasingly common story: a child goes off to college and, upon graduation, is unable to find steady employment. In such instances, a frequent outcome is for the child to return home, becoming a \u201cboomerang kid.\u201d The\u00a0boomerang generation, as the phenomenon has come to be known, refers to young adults, mostly between the ages of 25 and 34, who return home to live with their parents while they strive for stability in their lives\u2014often in terms of finances, living arrangements, and sometimes romantic relationships. These boomerang kids can be both good and bad for families. Within American families, 48% of boomerang kids report having paid rent to their parents, and 89% say they help out with household expenses\u2014a win for everyone (Parker, 2012). On the other hand, 24% of boomerang kids report that returning home hurts their relationship with their parents (Parker, 2012). For better or for worse, the number of children returning home has been increasing around the world.\u00a0<\/span>The Pew Research Center (2016) reported that the most common living arrangement for people aged 18-34 was living with their parents (32.1%).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Fry, Richard. For First Time in Modern Era (2016). Living With Parents Edges Out Other Living Arrangements for 18- to 34-Year-Olds. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.pewsocialtrends.org\/2016\/05\/24\/for-first-time-in-modern-era-living-with-parents-edges-out-other-living-arrangements-for-18-to-34-year-olds\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-2416-2\" href=\"#footnote-2416-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_ef0f3170-d0a1-4e3b-9667-54d010256590\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/ef0f3170-d0a1-4e3b-9667-54d010256590?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_ef0f3170-d0a1-4e3b-9667-54d010256590\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Adult children\u00a0typically maintain frequent contact with their parents, if for no other reason, money and advice.\u00a0Attitudes toward one\u2019s parents may become more accepting and forgiving, as parents are seen in a more objective way, as people with good points and bad.\u00a0As adults children can continue to be subjected to criticism, ridicule, and abuse at the hand of parents.\u00a0How long are we \u201cadult children\u201d?\u00a0For as long as our parents are living, we continue in the role of son or daughter.\u00a0(I had a neighbor in her nineties who would tell me her \u201cboys\u201d were coming to see her this weekend.\u00a0Her boys were in their 70s-but they were still her boys!)\u00a0But after one&#8217;s parents are gone, the adult is no longer a child; as one 40 year old man explained after the death of his father, \u201cI\u2019ll never be a kid again.\u201d<\/p>\n<h2>Family Issues and Considerations<\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">In addition to middle-aged parents spending more time, money, and energy taking care of their adult children, they are also increasingly taking care of their own aging and ailing parents. Middle-aged people in this set of circumstances are commonly referred to as the\u00a0<strong>sandwich generation<\/strong>\u00a0(Dukhovnov &amp; Zagheni, 2015). Of course, cultural norms and practices again come into play. In some Asian and Hispanic cultures, the expectation is that adult children are supposed to take care of aging parents and parents-in-law. In other Western cultures\u2014cultures that emphasize individuality and self-sustainability\u2014the expectation has historically been that people either\u00a0age in place, modifying their home and receiving services to allow them to continue to live independently, or enter long-term care facilities. However, given financial constraints, many families find themselves taking in and caring for their aging parents, increasing the number of\u00a0multigenerational homes\u00a0around the world.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Being a midlife child often involves\u00a0<strong>kinkeeping<\/strong>; organizing events and communication in order to maintain family ties. This role was first defined by Carolyn Rosenthal (1985). Kinkeepers\u00a0are often midlife daughters (they are the person who tells you what food to bring to a gathering, or makes arrangement for a family reunion). They can often function as &#8220;managers&#8221; who maintain family ties and lines of communication. This is true for both large nuclear families, reconstituted, and multi-generational families. Rosenthal found that over half of the families she sampled were capable of identifying the individual who performed this role. Often adults at this stage of their lives are pressed into caregiving roles. Often referred to as the &#8220;sandwich generation&#8221;, they are still looking out for their own children while simultaneously caring for older parents. Given shifts in longevity and increasing costs for professional care of older adults, this role will likely expand, placing ever greater pressure on careers.<\/p>\n<h2>Abuse in Family Life<\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Abuse can occur in multiple forms and across all family relationships. Breiding, Basile, Smith, Black, &amp; Mahendra (2015) define the forms of abuse as:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\"><strong>Physical abuse:<\/strong>\u00a0the use of intentional physical force to cause harm. Scratching, pushing, shoving, throwing, grabbing, biting, choking, shaking, slapping, punching, and hitting are common forms of physical abuse<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\"><strong>Sexual abuse:<\/strong>\u00a0the act of forcing someone to participate in a sex act against their will. Such abuse is often referred to as sexual assault or rape. A marital relationship does not grant anyone the right to demand sex or sexual activity from anyone, even a spouse<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\"><strong>Psychological abuse:<\/strong>\u00a0aggressive behavior that is intended to control someone else. Such abuse can include threats of physical or sexual abuse, manipulation, bullying, and stalking.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Abuse between partners is referred to as\u00a0intimate partner violence; however, such abuse can also occur between a parent and child (child abuse), adult children and their aging parents (called Elder Abuse), and even between siblings.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">The most common form of abuse between parents and children is that of neglect.\u00a0Neglect\u00a0refers to a family\u2019s failure to provide for a child\u2019s basic physical, emotional, medical, or educational needs (DePanfilis, 2006). Harry Potter\u2019s aunt and uncle, as well as Cinderella\u2019s stepmother, could all be prosecuted for neglect in the real world.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Abuse is a complex issue, especially within families. There are many reasons people become abusers: poverty, stress, and substance abuse are common characteristics shared by abusers, although abuse can happen in any family. There are also many reasons adults stay in abusive relationships: (a)\u00a0learned helplessness\u00a0(the abused person believing they have no control over the situation); (b) the belief that the abuser can\/will change; (c) shame, guilt, self-blame, and\/or fear; and (d) economic dependence. All of these factors can play a role.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Children who experience abuse may \u201cact out\u201d or otherwise respond in a variety of unhealthy ways. These include acts of self-destruction, withdrawal, and aggression, as well as struggles with depression, anxiety, and academic performance. Researchers have found that abused children\u2019s brains may produce higher levels of stress hormones. These hormones can lead to decreased brain development, lower stress thresholds, suppressed immune responses, and lifelong difficulties with learning and memory (Middlebrooks &amp; Audage, 2008).<\/span><\/p>\n<h2>Happy Healthy Families<\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Our families play a crucial role in our overall development and happiness. They can support and validate us, but they can also criticize and burden us. For better or worse, we all have a family. In closing, here are strategies you can use to increase the happiness of your family:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Teach morality\u2014fostering a sense of moral development in children can promote well-being (Damon, 2004).<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Savor the good\u2014celebrate each other\u2019s successes (Gable, Gonzaga &amp; Strachman, 2006).<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Use the extended family network\u2014family members of all ages, including older siblings and grandparents, who can act as caregivers can promote family well-being (Armstrong, Birnie-Lefcovitch &amp; Ungar, 2005).<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Create family identity\u2014share inside jokes, fond memories, and frame the story of the family (McAdams, 1993).<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Forgive\u2014Don\u2019t hold grudges against one another (McCullough, Worthington &amp; Rachal, 1997).<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>kinkeeping:<\/dt>\n<dd>&#8220;emotion work&#8221;, often undertaken by women, to foster and maintain family relationships<\/dd>\n<dt>physical abuse:<\/dt>\n<dd>the use of intentional physical force to cause harm<\/dd>\n<dt>psychological abuse:<\/dt>\n<dd>aggressive behavior that is intended to control someone else<\/dd>\n<dt>sandwich generation:<\/dt>\n<dd>a cohort of people charged with the dual responsibility of looking after older parents while raising their own children<\/dd>\n<dt>sexual abuse:<\/dt>\n<dd>the act of forcing someone to participate in a sex act against their will<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-2416\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Ronnie Mather and Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Family Life Cycle interactive. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Stephanie Loalada for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Laura Overstreet. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\">http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Types of Relationships: Intimate Relationships and Marriage and Happiness. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Kenneth Tan and Louis Tay . <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Purdue University. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/relationships-and-well-being\">https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/relationships-and-well-being<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: The Noba Project. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>The Family: Parenting in Later Life, Abuse, Happy, Healthy Families. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Joel A. Muraco . <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: University of Wisconsin, Green Bay. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/the-family\">https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/the-family<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: The Noba Project. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>smiling couple. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Bill Branson. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.freestockphotos.biz\/stockphoto\/17066\">http:\/\/www.freestockphotos.biz\/stockphoto\/17066<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-2416-1\"> Olson, D. H., &amp; Fowers, B. J. (1993). Five Types of Marriage: An Empirical Typology Based on ENRICH. <em>The Family Journal<\/em>, 1(3), 196\u2013207. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1066480793013002 <a href=\"#return-footnote-2416-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-2416-2\">Fry, Richard. For First Time in Modern Era (2016). Living With Parents Edges Out Other Living Arrangements for 18- to 34-Year-Olds. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.pewsocialtrends.org\/2016\/05\/24\/for-first-time-in-modern-era-living-with-parents-edges-out-other-living-arrangements-for-18-to-34-year-olds\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.pewsocialtrends.org\/2016\/05\/24\/for-first-time-in-modern-era-living-with-parents-edges-out-other-living-arrangements-for-18-to-34-year-olds\/<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-2416-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":10,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology\",\"author\":\"Laura Overstreet\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Types of Relationships: Intimate Relationships and Marriage and Happiness\",\"author\":\"Kenneth Tan and Louis Tay \",\"organization\":\"Purdue University\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/relationships-and-well-being\",\"project\":\"The Noba Project\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"The Family: Parenting in Later Life, Abuse, Happy, Healthy Families\",\"author\":\"Joel A. 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