{"id":249,"date":"2014-09-25T21:51:04","date_gmt":"2014-09-25T21:51:04","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/lifespandevelopment1x1\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=249"},"modified":"2024-09-25T13:32:48","modified_gmt":"2024-09-25T13:32:48","slug":"cognitive-development","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/chapter\/cognitive-development\/","title":{"raw":"Cognitive Development","rendered":"Cognitive Development"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe each of Piaget's theories and stages of sensorimotor intelligence<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain learning and memory abilities in infants and toddlers<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Cognitive Development in Children<\/h2>\r\nIn order to adapt to the evolving environment around us, humans rely on cognition, both adapting to the environment and also transforming it.\u00a0In general, all theorists studying cognitive development address three main issues:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>The typical course of cognitive development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The unique differences between individuals<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The mechanisms of cognitive development (the way genetics and environment combine to generate patterns of change)<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<h2>Piaget and Sensorimotor Intelligence<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4960\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"277\"]<img class=\"wp-image-4960\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/18151839\/adorable-boy-child-1701097.jpg\" alt=\"Adorable smiling toddler boy.\" width=\"277\" height=\"416\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Toddlers happily explore the world, engaged in purposeful goal-directed behavior.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nHow do infants connect and make sense of what they are learning? Remember that Piaget believed that we are continuously trying to maintain cognitive equilibrium, or balance, between what we see and what we know (Piaget, 1954). Children have much more of a challenge in maintaining this balance because they are constantly being confronted with new situations, new words, new objects, etc. All this new information needs to be organized, and a framework for organizing information is referred to as a <strong>schema<\/strong>. Children develop schemas through the processes of <strong>assimilation<\/strong> and <strong>accommodation<\/strong>.\r\n\r\nFor example, 2-year-old Deja learned the schema for dogs because her family has a Poodle. When Deja sees other dogs in her picture books, she says, \u201cLook mommy, dog!\u201d Thus, she has assimilated them into her schema for dogs. One day, Deja sees a sheep for the first time and says, \u201cLook mommy, dog!\u201d Having a basic schema that a dog is an animal with four legs and fur, Deja thinks all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. When Deja's mom tells her that the animal she sees is a sheep, not a dog, Deja must accommodate her schema for dogs to include more information based on her new experiences. Deja\u2019s schema for dog was too broad since not all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. She now modifies her schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep.\r\n\r\nLet's examine the transition that infants make from responding to the external world reflexively as newborns, to solving problems using mental strategies as two-year-olds. Piaget called this first stage of cognitive development\u00a0<strong>sensorimotor intelligence<\/strong>\u00a0(the sensorimotor period) because infants learn through their senses and motor skills. He subdivided this period into six substages:\r\n<table class=\"wikitable\"><caption>Table 1. Sensorimotor substages<\/caption>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Stage<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Age<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Stage 1 \u2013 Reflexes<\/td>\r\n<td>Birth to 6 weeks<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Stage 2 \u2013 Primary Circular Reactions<\/td>\r\n<td>6 weeks to 4 months<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Stage 3 \u2013 Secondary Circular Reactions<\/td>\r\n<td>4 months to 8 months<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Stage 4 \u2013 Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions<\/td>\r\n<td>8 months to 12 months<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Stage 5 \u2013 Tertiary Circular Reactions<\/td>\r\n<td>12 months to 18 months<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Stage 6 \u2013 Mental Representation<\/td>\r\n<td>18 months to 24 months<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/463c2da5-d3f2-4499-850e-e3e463f017d8\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Substages of Sensorimotor Intelligence<\/h2>\r\nFor an overview of the substages of sensorimotor thought, it helps to group the six substages into pairs.\u00a0The first two substages involve the infant's responses to its own body, call <strong>primary circular reactions<\/strong>. During the first month first (substage one), the infant's senses, as well motor reflexes are the foundation of thought.\r\n<h3><strong>Substage One:\u00a0<\/strong>Reflexive Action (Birth through 1st\u00a0month)<\/h3>\r\nThis active learning begins with automatic movements or reflexes (sucking, grasping, staring, listening).\u00a0A ball comes into contact with an infant\u2019s cheek and is automatically sucked on and licked. But this is also what happens with a sour lemon, much to the infant\u2019s surprise! The baby's first challenge is to learn to adapt the sucking reflex to bottles or breasts, pacifiers or fingers, each acquiring specific types of tongue movements to latch, suck, breathe, and repeat. This adaptation demonstrates that infants have begun to make sense of sensations.\u00a0Eventually, the use of these reflexes becomes more deliberate and purposeful as they move onto substage two.\r\n<h3><strong>Substage Two:<\/strong>\u00a0First Adaptations to the Environment (1st\u00a0through 4th\u00a0months)<\/h3>\r\nFortunately, within a few days or weeks, the infant begins to discriminate between objects and adjust responses accordingly as reflexes are replaced with voluntary movements.\u00a0An infant may accidentally engage in a behavior and find it interesting, such as making a vocalization.\u00a0This interest motivates trying to do it again and helps the infant learn a new behavior that originally occurred by chance.\u00a0The behavior is identified as circular and primary because it centers on the infant's own body. At first, most actions have to do with the body, but in months to come, will be directed more toward objects. For example, the infant may have different sucking motions for hunger and others for comfort (i.e.\u00a0sucking a pacifier differently from a nipple or attempting to hold a bottle to suck it).\r\n\r\nThe next two substages (3 and 4), involve the infant's responses to objects and people, called <strong>secondary circular reactions.\u00a0<\/strong>Reactions are no longer confined to the infant's body and are now interactions between the baby and something else.\r\n<h3><strong>Substage Three:<\/strong>\u00a0Repetition (4th\u00a0through 8th\u00a0months)<\/h3>\r\nDuring the next few months, the infant becomes more and more actively engaged in the outside world and takes delight in being able to make things happen by responding to people and objects.\u00a0Babies try to continue any pleasing event.\u00a0Repeated motion brings particular\u00a0interest as the infant is able to bang two lids together or shake a rattle and laugh. Another example might be to clap their hands when a caregiver says \"patty-cake.\" Any sight of something delightful will trigger efforts for interaction.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_6420\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"281\"]<img class=\"wp-image-6420\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/23133938\/baby-2320701_1920.jpg\" alt=\"Smiling, clapping baby.\" width=\"281\" height=\"422\" \/> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. During the repetition stage, this baby enjoys interacting with others and clapping her hands.[\/caption]\r\n<h3><strong>Substage Four:<\/strong>\u00a0New Adaptations and Goal-Directed Behavior (8th\u00a0through 12th\u00a0months)<\/h3>\r\nNow the infant becomes more deliberate and purposeful in responding to people and objects and can engage in behaviors that others perform and anticipate upcoming events. Babies may ask for help by fussing, pointing, or reaching up to accomplish tasks, and work hard to get what they want.\u00a0Perhaps because of continued maturation of the prefrontal cortex, the infant becomes capable of having a thought and carrying out a planned, goal-directed activity such as seeking a toy that has rolled under the couch or indicating that they are hungry.\u00a0The infant is coordinating both internal and external activities to achieve a planned goal and begins to get a sense of social understanding.\u00a0Piaget believed that at about 8 months (during substage 4), babies first understood the concept of <strong>object permanence,<\/strong> which is the realization that objects or people continue to exist when they are no longer in sight.\r\n\r\nThe last two stages (5 and 6), called <strong>tertiary circular reactions<\/strong>, consist of actions (stage 5) and ideas (stage 6) where infants become more creative in their thinking.\r\n<h3><strong>Substage Five:<\/strong>\u00a0Active Experimentation of \"Little Scientists\" (12th\u00a0through 18th\u00a0months)<\/h3>\r\nThe toddler is considered a \u201clittle scientist\u201d and begins exploring the world in a trial-and-error manner, using motor skills and planning abilities. For example, the child might throw their ball down the stairs to see what happens or delight in squeezing all of the toothpaste out of the tube. The toddler\u2019s active engagement in experimentation helps them learn about their world. Gravity is learned by pouring water from a cup or pushing bowls from high chairs.\u00a0The caregiver tries to help the child by picking it up again and placing it on the tray.\u00a0And what happens?\u00a0Another experiment!\u00a0The child pushes it off the tray again causing it to fall and the caregiver to pick it up again!\u00a0A closer examination of this stage causes us to really appreciate how much learning is going on at this time and how many things we come to take for granted must actually be learned. This is a wonderful and messy time of experimentation and most learning occurs by trial and error.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nSee how even babies think like little scientists in this Ted talk.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=y1KIVZw7Jxk&amp;feature=youtu.be[\/embed]\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/LauraSchulzTheSurprisinglyLogicalMindsofBabies_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"Laura Schulz: The surprisingly logical minds of babies\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3><strong>Substage Six:\u00a0<\/strong>Mental Representations (18th\u00a0month to 2 years of age)<\/h3>\r\nThe child is now able to solve problems using mental strategies, to remember something heard days before and repeat it, to engage in pretend play, and to find objects that have been moved even when out of sight.\u00a0Take, for instance, the child who is upstairs in a room with the door closed, supposedly taking a nap.\u00a0The\u00a0doorknob has a safety device on it that makes it impossible for the child to turn the knob.\u00a0After trying several times to push the door or turn the doorknob, the child carries out a mental strategy to get the door opened - he knocks on the door!\u00a0Obviously, this is a technique learned from the past experience of hearing a knock on the door and observing someone opening the door.\u00a0The\u00a0child is now better equipped with mental strategies for problem-solving.\u00a0Part of this stage also involves learning to use language. This initial movement from the \u201chands-on\u201d approach to knowing about the world to the more mental world of stage six marked the transition to preoperational thinking, which you'll learn more about in a later module.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/9db42bf4-5403-4090-a5e3-9fdea58c8853\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/ae2cef89-8302-4e79-b890-a6b835dcf125\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Development of Object Permanence<\/h2>\r\nA critical milestone during the sensorimotor period is the development of object permanence. Introduced during substage 4 above, <strong>object permanence<\/strong> is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it continues to exist. The infant is now capable of making attempts to retrieve the object.\u00a0Piaget thought that, at about 8 months, babies first understand the concept of objective permanence, but some research has suggested that infants seem to be able to recognize that objects have permanence at much younger ages (even as young as 4 months of age). Other researchers, however, are not convinced (Mareschal &amp; Kaufman, 2012).[footnote]Mareshcal, D. &amp; Kauffman, J. (2012). Object Permanence in infancy: Revisiting Baillargeon's drawbridge study. In Alan M. Slaster &amp; Paul C. Quinn (Eds.), Developmental Psychology: Revisiting the classic studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.[\/footnote] It may be a matter of \"grasping vs. mastering\" the concept of objective permanence. Overall, we can expect children to <em>grasp<\/em> the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old, but memory may play a factor in their consistency. Because toddlers (i.e., 12\u201324 months old) have <em>mastered<\/em> object permanence, they enjoy games like hide-and-seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places when you ask them to find objects.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nAlthough the styles and cinematography in this video are dated, the information is valuable in understanding how researchers, like\u00a0Dr. Rene Baillargeon, study object permanence in young infants.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935266&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=hwgo2O5Vk_g&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-awiy6ig5-hwgo2O5Vk_g\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/ObjectConceptVOERampStudyBaillargeon_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"Object Concept VOE Ramp Study Baillargeon\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Learning and Memory Abilities in Infants<\/h2>\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Memory is central to cognitive development. Our memories form the basis for our sense of self, guide our thoughts and decisions, influence our emotional reactions, and allow us to learn (Bauer, 2008)[footnote]Bauer PJ, Pathman T. Memory and Early Brain Development. In: Tremblay RE, Boivin M, Peters RDeV, eds. Paus T, topic ed. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development [online]. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.child-encyclopedia.com\/brain\/according-experts\/memory-and-early-brain-development\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.child-encyclopedia.com\/brain\/according-experts\/memory-and-early-brain-development<\/a>. Published December 2008. Accessed March 2, 2019.[\/footnote]. <\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">It is thought that Piaget underestimated memory ability in infants (Schneider, 2015)[footnote]Schneider, Wolfgang. (2015). This belief came in part from findings that adults rarely recall personal events from before the age of 3 years (a phenomenon known as\u00a0<strong>infantile <\/strong>or <strong>childhood amnesia<\/strong>). However, research with infants and young children has made it clear that they can and do form memories of events.\u00a0Memory development from early childhood through emerging adulthood. Switzerland: Spring International. doi: 10.1007\/978-3-319-09611-7.[\/footnote]. <\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">As mentioned when discussing the development of infant senses, within the first few weeks of birth, infants recognize their caregivers by face, voice, and smell. Sensory and caregiver memories are apparent in the first month, motor memories by 3 months, and then, at about 9 months, more complex memories including language (Mullally &amp; Maguire, 2014)[footnote]Mullally, Sinead L. &amp; Maguire, Eleanor. A. (2014). Learning to remember: The early ontogeny of episodic memory. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 9(13), 12-29. doi: 10.1016\/j.dcn.2013.12.006[\/footnote]. There is agreement that memory is fragile in the first months of life, but that improves with age. Repeated sensations and brain maturation are required in order to process and recall events (Bauer, 2008). Infants remember things that happened weeks and months ago (Mullally &amp; Maguire, 2014), although they most likely will not remember it decades later.\u00a0From the cognitive perspective, this has been explained by the idea that the lack of linguistic skills of babies and toddlers limit their ability to mentally represent events; thereby, reducing their ability to encode memory. Moreover, even if infants do form such early memories, older children and adults may not be able to access them because they may be employing very different, more linguistically based, retrieval cues than infants used when forming the memory.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nWatch this Ted talk from Alison Gopnik to hear about more research done on cognition in babies.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/cplaWsiu7Yg[\/embed]\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/AlisonGopnikWhatDoBabiesThink_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"Alison Gopnik: What do babies think?\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]accommodation:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]when we restructure or modify what we already know so that new information can fit in better[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]assimilation:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]when we modify or change new information to fit into our schemas (what we already know)[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]infantile or childhood amnesia:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the idea that people forget everything that happened to them before the age of 3[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]object permanence:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the realization that objects (including people) still exist even if they can no longer be seen, touched, or heard[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]primary circular reactions:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the first two stages of Piaget's sensorimotor intelligence which involve the infant's responses to its own body[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]schema:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]secondary circular reactions:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]stages 3 and 4 of Piaget's sensorimotor intelligence which involves the infant's responses to objects and people[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]sensorimotor intelligence:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]Piaget's term for the way infants think (by using their senses and motor skills) during the first stage of cognitive development[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]tertiary circular reactions:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]consist of actions (stage 5) and ideas (stage 6) where infants become more creative in their thinking[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe each of Piaget&#8217;s theories and stages of sensorimotor intelligence<\/li>\n<li>Explain learning and memory abilities in infants and toddlers<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Cognitive Development in Children<\/h2>\n<p>In order to adapt to the evolving environment around us, humans rely on cognition, both adapting to the environment and also transforming it.\u00a0In general, all theorists studying cognitive development address three main issues:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>The typical course of cognitive development<\/li>\n<li>The unique differences between individuals<\/li>\n<li>The mechanisms of cognitive development (the way genetics and environment combine to generate patterns of change)<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h2>Piaget and Sensorimotor Intelligence<\/h2>\n<div id=\"attachment_4960\" style=\"width: 287px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4960\" class=\"wp-image-4960\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/18151839\/adorable-boy-child-1701097.jpg\" alt=\"Adorable smiling toddler boy.\" width=\"277\" height=\"416\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4960\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Toddlers happily explore the world, engaged in purposeful goal-directed behavior.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>How do infants connect and make sense of what they are learning? Remember that Piaget believed that we are continuously trying to maintain cognitive equilibrium, or balance, between what we see and what we know (Piaget, 1954). Children have much more of a challenge in maintaining this balance because they are constantly being confronted with new situations, new words, new objects, etc. All this new information needs to be organized, and a framework for organizing information is referred to as a <strong>schema<\/strong>. Children develop schemas through the processes of <strong>assimilation<\/strong> and <strong>accommodation<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>For example, 2-year-old Deja learned the schema for dogs because her family has a Poodle. When Deja sees other dogs in her picture books, she says, \u201cLook mommy, dog!\u201d Thus, she has assimilated them into her schema for dogs. One day, Deja sees a sheep for the first time and says, \u201cLook mommy, dog!\u201d Having a basic schema that a dog is an animal with four legs and fur, Deja thinks all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. When Deja&#8217;s mom tells her that the animal she sees is a sheep, not a dog, Deja must accommodate her schema for dogs to include more information based on her new experiences. Deja\u2019s schema for dog was too broad since not all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. She now modifies her schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep.<\/p>\n<p>Let&#8217;s examine the transition that infants make from responding to the external world reflexively as newborns, to solving problems using mental strategies as two-year-olds. Piaget called this first stage of cognitive development\u00a0<strong>sensorimotor intelligence<\/strong>\u00a0(the sensorimotor period) because infants learn through their senses and motor skills. He subdivided this period into six substages:<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable\">\n<caption>Table 1. Sensorimotor substages<\/caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th scope=\"col\">Stage<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Age<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Stage 1 \u2013 Reflexes<\/td>\n<td>Birth to 6 weeks<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Stage 2 \u2013 Primary Circular Reactions<\/td>\n<td>6 weeks to 4 months<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Stage 3 \u2013 Secondary Circular Reactions<\/td>\n<td>4 months to 8 months<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Stage 4 \u2013 Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions<\/td>\n<td>8 months to 12 months<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Stage 5 \u2013 Tertiary Circular Reactions<\/td>\n<td>12 months to 18 months<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Stage 6 \u2013 Mental Representation<\/td>\n<td>18 months to 24 months<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_463c2da5-d3f2-4499-850e-e3e463f017d8\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/463c2da5-d3f2-4499-850e-e3e463f017d8?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_463c2da5-d3f2-4499-850e-e3e463f017d8\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Substages of Sensorimotor Intelligence<\/h2>\n<p>For an overview of the substages of sensorimotor thought, it helps to group the six substages into pairs.\u00a0The first two substages involve the infant&#8217;s responses to its own body, call <strong>primary circular reactions<\/strong>. During the first month first (substage one), the infant&#8217;s senses, as well motor reflexes are the foundation of thought.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Substage One:\u00a0<\/strong>Reflexive Action (Birth through 1st\u00a0month)<\/h3>\n<p>This active learning begins with automatic movements or reflexes (sucking, grasping, staring, listening).\u00a0A ball comes into contact with an infant\u2019s cheek and is automatically sucked on and licked. But this is also what happens with a sour lemon, much to the infant\u2019s surprise! The baby&#8217;s first challenge is to learn to adapt the sucking reflex to bottles or breasts, pacifiers or fingers, each acquiring specific types of tongue movements to latch, suck, breathe, and repeat. This adaptation demonstrates that infants have begun to make sense of sensations.\u00a0Eventually, the use of these reflexes becomes more deliberate and purposeful as they move onto substage two.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Substage Two:<\/strong>\u00a0First Adaptations to the Environment (1st\u00a0through 4th\u00a0months)<\/h3>\n<p>Fortunately, within a few days or weeks, the infant begins to discriminate between objects and adjust responses accordingly as reflexes are replaced with voluntary movements.\u00a0An infant may accidentally engage in a behavior and find it interesting, such as making a vocalization.\u00a0This interest motivates trying to do it again and helps the infant learn a new behavior that originally occurred by chance.\u00a0The behavior is identified as circular and primary because it centers on the infant&#8217;s own body. At first, most actions have to do with the body, but in months to come, will be directed more toward objects. For example, the infant may have different sucking motions for hunger and others for comfort (i.e.\u00a0sucking a pacifier differently from a nipple or attempting to hold a bottle to suck it).<\/p>\n<p>The next two substages (3 and 4), involve the infant&#8217;s responses to objects and people, called <strong>secondary circular reactions.\u00a0<\/strong>Reactions are no longer confined to the infant&#8217;s body and are now interactions between the baby and something else.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Substage Three:<\/strong>\u00a0Repetition (4th\u00a0through 8th\u00a0months)<\/h3>\n<p>During the next few months, the infant becomes more and more actively engaged in the outside world and takes delight in being able to make things happen by responding to people and objects.\u00a0Babies try to continue any pleasing event.\u00a0Repeated motion brings particular\u00a0interest as the infant is able to bang two lids together or shake a rattle and laugh. Another example might be to clap their hands when a caregiver says &#8220;patty-cake.&#8221; Any sight of something delightful will trigger efforts for interaction.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_6420\" style=\"width: 291px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6420\" class=\"wp-image-6420\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/23133938\/baby-2320701_1920.jpg\" alt=\"Smiling, clapping baby.\" width=\"281\" height=\"422\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-6420\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. During the repetition stage, this baby enjoys interacting with others and clapping her hands.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3><strong>Substage Four:<\/strong>\u00a0New Adaptations and Goal-Directed Behavior (8th\u00a0through 12th\u00a0months)<\/h3>\n<p>Now the infant becomes more deliberate and purposeful in responding to people and objects and can engage in behaviors that others perform and anticipate upcoming events. Babies may ask for help by fussing, pointing, or reaching up to accomplish tasks, and work hard to get what they want.\u00a0Perhaps because of continued maturation of the prefrontal cortex, the infant becomes capable of having a thought and carrying out a planned, goal-directed activity such as seeking a toy that has rolled under the couch or indicating that they are hungry.\u00a0The infant is coordinating both internal and external activities to achieve a planned goal and begins to get a sense of social understanding.\u00a0Piaget believed that at about 8 months (during substage 4), babies first understood the concept of <strong>object permanence,<\/strong> which is the realization that objects or people continue to exist when they are no longer in sight.<\/p>\n<p>The last two stages (5 and 6), called <strong>tertiary circular reactions<\/strong>, consist of actions (stage 5) and ideas (stage 6) where infants become more creative in their thinking.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Substage Five:<\/strong>\u00a0Active Experimentation of &#8220;Little Scientists&#8221; (12th\u00a0through 18th\u00a0months)<\/h3>\n<p>The toddler is considered a \u201clittle scientist\u201d and begins exploring the world in a trial-and-error manner, using motor skills and planning abilities. For example, the child might throw their ball down the stairs to see what happens or delight in squeezing all of the toothpaste out of the tube. The toddler\u2019s active engagement in experimentation helps them learn about their world. Gravity is learned by pouring water from a cup or pushing bowls from high chairs.\u00a0The caregiver tries to help the child by picking it up again and placing it on the tray.\u00a0And what happens?\u00a0Another experiment!\u00a0The child pushes it off the tray again causing it to fall and the caregiver to pick it up again!\u00a0A closer examination of this stage causes us to really appreciate how much learning is going on at this time and how many things we come to take for granted must actually be learned. This is a wonderful and messy time of experimentation and most learning occurs by trial and error.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>See how even babies think like little scientists in this Ted talk.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Laura Schulz: The surprisingly logical minds of babies\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/y1KIVZw7Jxk?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/LauraSchulzTheSurprisinglyLogicalMindsofBabies_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;Laura Schulz: The surprisingly logical minds of babies&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3><strong>Substage Six:\u00a0<\/strong>Mental Representations (18th\u00a0month to 2 years of age)<\/h3>\n<p>The child is now able to solve problems using mental strategies, to remember something heard days before and repeat it, to engage in pretend play, and to find objects that have been moved even when out of sight.\u00a0Take, for instance, the child who is upstairs in a room with the door closed, supposedly taking a nap.\u00a0The\u00a0doorknob has a safety device on it that makes it impossible for the child to turn the knob.\u00a0After trying several times to push the door or turn the doorknob, the child carries out a mental strategy to get the door opened &#8211; he knocks on the door!\u00a0Obviously, this is a technique learned from the past experience of hearing a knock on the door and observing someone opening the door.\u00a0The\u00a0child is now better equipped with mental strategies for problem-solving.\u00a0Part of this stage also involves learning to use language. This initial movement from the \u201chands-on\u201d approach to knowing about the world to the more mental world of stage six marked the transition to preoperational thinking, which you&#8217;ll learn more about in a later module.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_9db42bf4-5403-4090-a5e3-9fdea58c8853\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/9db42bf4-5403-4090-a5e3-9fdea58c8853?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_9db42bf4-5403-4090-a5e3-9fdea58c8853\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_ae2cef89-8302-4e79-b890-a6b835dcf125\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/ae2cef89-8302-4e79-b890-a6b835dcf125?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_ae2cef89-8302-4e79-b890-a6b835dcf125\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Development of Object Permanence<\/h2>\n<p>A critical milestone during the sensorimotor period is the development of object permanence. Introduced during substage 4 above, <strong>object permanence<\/strong> is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it continues to exist. The infant is now capable of making attempts to retrieve the object.\u00a0Piaget thought that, at about 8 months, babies first understand the concept of objective permanence, but some research has suggested that infants seem to be able to recognize that objects have permanence at much younger ages (even as young as 4 months of age). Other researchers, however, are not convinced (Mareschal &amp; Kaufman, 2012).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Mareshcal, D. &amp; Kauffman, J. (2012). Object Permanence in infancy: Revisiting Baillargeon's drawbridge study. In Alan M. Slaster &amp; Paul C. Quinn (Eds.), Developmental Psychology: Revisiting the classic studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.\" id=\"return-footnote-249-1\" href=\"#footnote-249-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> It may be a matter of &#8220;grasping vs. mastering&#8221; the concept of objective permanence. Overall, we can expect children to <em>grasp<\/em> the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old, but memory may play a factor in their consistency. Because toddlers (i.e., 12\u201324 months old) have <em>mastered<\/em> object permanence, they enjoy games like hide-and-seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places when you ask them to find objects.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Although the styles and cinematography in this video are dated, the information is valuable in understanding how researchers, like\u00a0Dr. Rene Baillargeon, study object permanence in young infants.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935266&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=hwgo2O5Vk_g&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-awiy6ig5-hwgo2O5Vk_g\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/ObjectConceptVOERampStudyBaillargeon_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;Object Concept VOE Ramp Study Baillargeon&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Learning and Memory Abilities in Infants<\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Memory is central to cognitive development. Our memories form the basis for our sense of self, guide our thoughts and decisions, influence our emotional reactions, and allow us to learn (Bauer, 2008)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Bauer PJ, Pathman T. Memory and Early Brain Development. In: Tremblay RE, Boivin M, Peters RDeV, eds. Paus T, topic ed. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development [online]. http:\/\/www.child-encyclopedia.com\/brain\/according-experts\/memory-and-early-brain-development. Published December 2008. Accessed March 2, 2019.\" id=\"return-footnote-249-2\" href=\"#footnote-249-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a>. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">It is thought that Piaget underestimated memory ability in infants (Schneider, 2015)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Schneider, Wolfgang. (2015). This belief came in part from findings that adults rarely recall personal events from before the age of 3 years (a phenomenon known as\u00a0infantile or childhood amnesia). However, research with infants and young children has made it clear that they can and do form memories of events.\u00a0Memory development from early childhood through emerging adulthood. Switzerland: Spring International. doi: 10.1007\/978-3-319-09611-7.\" id=\"return-footnote-249-3\" href=\"#footnote-249-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a>. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">As mentioned when discussing the development of infant senses, within the first few weeks of birth, infants recognize their caregivers by face, voice, and smell. Sensory and caregiver memories are apparent in the first month, motor memories by 3 months, and then, at about 9 months, more complex memories including language (Mullally &amp; Maguire, 2014)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Mullally, Sinead L. &amp; Maguire, Eleanor. A. (2014). Learning to remember: The early ontogeny of episodic memory. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 9(13), 12-29. doi: 10.1016\/j.dcn.2013.12.006\" id=\"return-footnote-249-4\" href=\"#footnote-249-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a>. There is agreement that memory is fragile in the first months of life, but that improves with age. Repeated sensations and brain maturation are required in order to process and recall events (Bauer, 2008). Infants remember things that happened weeks and months ago (Mullally &amp; Maguire, 2014), although they most likely will not remember it decades later.\u00a0From the cognitive perspective, this has been explained by the idea that the lack of linguistic skills of babies and toddlers limit their ability to mentally represent events; thereby, reducing their ability to encode memory. Moreover, even if infants do form such early memories, older children and adults may not be able to access them because they may be employing very different, more linguistically based, retrieval cues than infants used when forming the memory.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this Ted talk from Alison Gopnik to hear about more research done on cognition in babies.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Alison Gopnik: What do babies think?\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/cplaWsiu7Yg?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/AlisonGopnikWhatDoBabiesThink_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;Alison Gopnik: What do babies think?&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>accommodation:<\/dt>\n<dd>when we restructure or modify what we already know so that new information can fit in better<\/dd>\n<dt>assimilation:<\/dt>\n<dd>when we modify or change new information to fit into our schemas (what we already know)<\/dd>\n<dt>infantile or childhood amnesia:<\/dt>\n<dd>the idea that people forget everything that happened to them before the age of 3<\/dd>\n<dt>object permanence:<\/dt>\n<dd>the realization that objects (including people) still exist even if they can no longer be seen, touched, or heard<\/dd>\n<dt>primary circular reactions:<\/dt>\n<dd>the first two stages of Piaget&#8217;s sensorimotor intelligence which involve the infant&#8217;s responses to its own body<\/dd>\n<dt>schema:<\/dt>\n<dd>a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations<\/dd>\n<dt>secondary circular reactions:<\/dt>\n<dd>stages 3 and 4 of Piaget&#8217;s sensorimotor intelligence which involves the infant&#8217;s responses to objects and people<\/dd>\n<dt>sensorimotor intelligence:<\/dt>\n<dd>Piaget&#8217;s term for the way infants think (by using their senses and motor skills) during the first stage of cognitive development<\/dd>\n<dt>tertiary circular reactions:<\/dt>\n<dd>consist of actions (stage 5) and ideas (stage 6) where infants become more creative in their thinking<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-249\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Tera Jones for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Laura Overstreet. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\">http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Infant Cognitive Development. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infant_cognitive_development#Jean_Piaget\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infant_cognitive_development#Jean_Piaget<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Sections on Assimilation, Accommodation, and Object Permanence. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/lifespan-theories-cognitive-development\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/lifespan-theories-cognitive-development\/<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Introduction to Psychology. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Alison Gopnik: What do babies think?. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Ted. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=cplaWsiu7Yg\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=cplaWsiu7Yg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Cognitive Schemata. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Emmavt. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Cognitive_Schemata_Diagram.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Cognitive_Schemata_Diagram.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Clapping baby. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Avraham Nacher . <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Pixabay. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/baby-happy-clap-smile-fun-2320701\/\">https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/baby-happy-clap-smile-fun-2320701\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Object Concept VOE Ramp Study Baillargeon. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: adamism9. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hwgo2O5Vk_g\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hwgo2O5Vk_g<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>All Rights Reserved<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Laura Schulz: The surprisingly logical minds of babies. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Ted. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=y1KIVZw7Jxk\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=y1KIVZw7Jxk<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Toddler boy. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: khats cassim. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Pexels. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pexels.com\/photo\/photo-of-toddler-1701097\/\">https:\/\/www.pexels.com\/photo\/photo-of-toddler-1701097\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-249-1\">Mareshcal, D. &amp; Kauffman, J. (2012). Object Permanence in infancy: Revisiting Baillargeon's drawbridge study. In Alan M. Slaster &amp; Paul C. Quinn (Eds.), Developmental Psychology: Revisiting the classic studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. <a href=\"#return-footnote-249-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-249-2\">Bauer PJ, Pathman T. Memory and Early Brain Development. In: Tremblay RE, Boivin M, Peters RDeV, eds. Paus T, topic ed. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development [online]. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.child-encyclopedia.com\/brain\/according-experts\/memory-and-early-brain-development\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.child-encyclopedia.com\/brain\/according-experts\/memory-and-early-brain-development<\/a>. Published December 2008. Accessed March 2, 2019. <a href=\"#return-footnote-249-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-249-3\">Schneider, Wolfgang. (2015). This belief came in part from findings that adults rarely recall personal events from before the age of 3 years (a phenomenon known as\u00a0<strong>infantile <\/strong>or <strong>childhood amnesia<\/strong>). However, research with infants and young children has made it clear that they can and do form memories of events.\u00a0Memory development from early childhood through emerging adulthood. Switzerland: Spring International. doi: 10.1007\/978-3-319-09611-7. <a href=\"#return-footnote-249-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-249-4\">Mullally, Sinead L. &amp; Maguire, Eleanor. A. (2014). Learning to remember: The early ontogeny of episodic memory. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 9(13), 12-29. doi: 10.1016\/j.dcn.2013.12.006 <a href=\"#return-footnote-249-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":74,"menu_order":8,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology\",\"author\":\"Laura Overstreet\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Object Concept VOE Ramp Study Baillargeon\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"adamism9\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hwgo2O5Vk_g\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"arr\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Infant Cognitive Development\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infant_cognitive_development#Jean_Piaget\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Sections on Assimilation, Accommodation, and Object Permanence\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/lifespan-theories-cognitive-development\/\",\"project\":\"Introduction to Psychology\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Tera Jones for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Laura Schulz: The surprisingly logical minds of 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