{"id":251,"date":"2014-09-25T21:53:44","date_gmt":"2014-09-25T21:53:44","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/lifespandevelopment1x1\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=251"},"modified":"2024-04-30T19:11:30","modified_gmt":"2024-04-30T19:11:30","slug":"language-development","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/chapter\/language-development\/","title":{"raw":"Language Development","rendered":"Language Development"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe stages of language development during infancy<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Compare theories of language development in toddlers<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_6422\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"183\"]<img class=\"wp-image-6422\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/23134556\/boy-making-a-phone-call.jpg\" alt=\"Baby boy talking on phone.\" width=\"183\" height=\"275\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Babies pick up on language skills really early on and can differentiate between sounds long before they can speak themselves.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nGiven the remarkable complexity of a language, one might expect that mastering a language would be an especially arduous task; indeed, for those of us trying to learn a second language as adults, this might seem to be true. However, young children master language very quickly with relative ease. B. F. Skinner (1957) proposed that language is learned through reinforcement. Noam Chomsky (1965) criticized this behaviorist approach, asserting instead that the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are biologically determined. The use of language develops in the absence of formal instruction and appears to follow a very similar pattern in children from vastly different cultures and backgrounds. It would seem, therefore, that we are born with a biological predisposition to acquire a language (Chomsky, 1965; Fern\u00e1ndez &amp; Cairns, 2011). Moreover, it appears that there is a critical period for language acquisition, such that this proficiency at acquiring language is maximal early in life; generally, as people age, the ease with which they acquire and master new languages diminishes (Johnson &amp; Newport, 1989; Lenneberg, 1967; Singleton, 1995).\r\n\r\nChildren begin to learn about language from a very early age (Table 1). In fact, it appears that this is occurring even before we are born. Newborns show a preference for their mother\u2019s voice and appear to be able to discriminate between the language spoken by their mother and other languages. Babies are also attuned to the languages being used around them and show preferences for videos of faces that are moving in synchrony with the audio of spoken language versus videos that do not synchronize with the audio (Blossom &amp; Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke &amp; Cortelyou, 1981).\r\n<table summary=\"A three column table describes Stages of Language and Communication Development. The columns, from left to right, are labeled \u201cStage; Age; and Developmental Language and Communication.\u201d The first row, respectively, reads: \u201c1; 0\u20133 months; and reflexive communication.\u201d The second row reads: \u201c2; 3\u20138 months; and reflexive communication, interest in others.\u201d The third row reads: \u201c3; 8\u201313 months; and intentional communication, sociability.\u201d The fourth row reads: \u201c4; 12\u201318 months; and first words.\u201d The fifth row reads: \u201c5; 18\u201324 months; and simple sentences of two words.\u201d The sixth row reads: \u201c6; 2\u20133 years; and sentences of three or more words.\u201d The seventh row reads: \u201c7; 3\u20135 years; and complex sentences, has conversations.\u201d\"><caption>Table 1. Stages of Language and Communication Development<\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Stage<\/th>\r\n<th>Age<\/th>\r\n<th>Developmental Language and Communication<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>1<\/td>\r\n<td>0\u20133 months<\/td>\r\n<td>Reflexive communication<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>2<\/td>\r\n<td>3\u20138 months<\/td>\r\n<td>Reflexive communication; interest in others<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>3<\/td>\r\n<td>8\u201312 months<\/td>\r\n<td>Intentional communication; sociability<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>4<\/td>\r\n<td>12\u201318 months<\/td>\r\n<td>First words<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>5<\/td>\r\n<td>18\u201324 months<\/td>\r\n<td>Simple sentences of two words<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>6<\/td>\r\n<td>2\u20133 years<\/td>\r\n<td>Sentences of three or more words<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>7<\/td>\r\n<td>3\u20135 years<\/td>\r\n<td>Complex sentences; has conversations<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nEach language has its own set of <strong>phonemes<\/strong> that are used to generate <strong>morphemes<\/strong>, words, and so on. Babies can discriminate among the sounds that make up a language (for example, they can tell the difference between the \u201cs\u201d in vision and the \u201css\u201d in fission); early on, they can differentiate between the sounds of all human languages, even those that do not occur in the languages that are used in their environments. However, by the time that they are about 1 year old, they can only discriminate among those phonemes that are used in the language or languages in their environments (Jensen, 2011; Werker &amp; Lalonde, 1988; Werker &amp; Tees, 1984).\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nThis video explains some of the research surrounding language acquisition in babies, particularly those learning a second language.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?time_continue=157&amp;v=Me_v82q0ins\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/HowDoBabiesBecomeBilingual_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"How Do Babies Become Bilingual?\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Newborn Communication<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_788\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"wp-image-788 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2016\/03\/16003529\/Baby_Face-300x218.jpg\" alt=\"Wide-eyed baby boy.\" width=\"300\" height=\"218\" \/> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Before they develop language, infants communicate using facial expressions.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nDo newborns communicate?\u00a0Certainly, they do.\u00a0They do not, however, communicate with the use of language.\u00a0Instead, they communicate their thoughts and needs with body posture (being relaxed or still), gestures, cries, and facial expressions.\u00a0A person who spends adequate time with an infant can learn which cries indicate pain and which ones indicate hunger, discomfort, or frustration.\r\n<h3><strong>Intentional Vocalizations<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nInfants begin to vocalize and repeat vocalizations within the first couple of months of life.\u00a0That gurgling, musical vocalization called cooing can serve as a source of entertainment to an infant who has been laid down for a nap or seated in a carrier on a car ride.\u00a0Cooing serves as practice for vocalization. It also allows the infant to hear the sound of their own voice and try to repeat sounds that are entertaining.\u00a0Infants also begin to learn the pace and pause of conversation as they alternate their vocalization with that of someone else and then take their turn again when the other person\u2019s vocalization has stopped.\u00a0Cooing initially involves making vowel sounds like \u201coooo.\u201d Later, as the baby moves into babbling (see below), consonants are added to vocalizations such as \u201cnananananana.\u201d\r\n<h3><strong>Babbling and Gesturing<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nBetween 6 and 9 months, infants begin making even more elaborate vocalizations that include the sounds required for any language.\u00a0Guttural sounds, clicks, consonants, and vowel sounds stand ready to equip the child with the ability to repeat whatever sounds are characteristic of the language heard. These babies repeat certain syllables (ma-ma-ma, da-da-da, ba-ba-ba), a vocalization called <strong>babbling<\/strong> because of the way it sounds.\u00a0Eventually, these sounds will no longer be used as the infant grows more accustomed to a particular language.\u00a0Deaf babies also use gestures to communicate wants, reactions, and feelings.\u00a0Because gesturing seems to be easier than vocalization for some toddlers, sign language is sometimes taught to enhance one\u2019s ability to communicate by making use of the ease of gesturing.\u00a0The\u00a0rhythm and pattern of language are used when deaf babies sign just as when hearing babies babble.\r\n\r\nAt around ten months of age, infants can understand more than they can say.\u00a0You may have experienced this phenomenon as well if you have ever tried to learn a second language.\u00a0You may have been able to follow a conversation more easily than to contribute to it.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/729d0d93-59a2-4262-a693-c8ed16697098\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3><strong>Holophrasic Speech<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nChildren begin using their first words at about 12 or 13 months of age and may use partial words to convey thoughts at even younger ages.\u00a0These\u00a0one-word expressions are referred to as holophrasic speech (<strong>holophrase<\/strong>). For example, the child may say \u201cju\u201d for the word \u201cjuice\u201d and use this sound when referring to a bottle.\u00a0The\u00a0listener must interpret the meaning of the holophrase. When this is someone who has spent time with the child, interpretation is not too difficult.\u00a0They know that \u201cju\u201d means \u201cjuice\u201d which means the baby wants some milk!\u00a0But, someone who has not been around the child will have trouble knowing what is meant.\u00a0Imagine the parent who exclaims to a friend, \u201cEzra\u2019s talking all the time now!\u201d\u00a0The friend hears only \u201cju da ga\u201d which, the parent explains, means \u201cI want some milk when I go with Daddy.\u201d\r\n<h3><strong>Underextension<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nA child who learns that a word stands for an object may initially think that the word can be used for only that particular object.\u00a0Only the family\u2019s Irish Setter is a \u201cdoggie.\u201d This\u00a0is referred to as underextension.\u00a0More often, however, a child may think that a label applies to all objects that are similar to the original object.\u00a0In overextension, all animals become \u201cdoggies,\u201d for example.\r\n<h3><strong>First words and cultural influences<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nFirst words for English-speaking children tend to be nouns.\u00a0The\u00a0child labels objects such as a cup or a ball.\u00a0In a verb-friendly language such as Chinese, however, children may learn more verbs.\u00a0This may also be due to the different emphasis given to objects based on culture.\u00a0Chinese children may be taught to notice action and relationship between objects while children from the United States may be taught to name an object and its qualities (color, texture, size, etc.).\u00a0These\u00a0differences can be seen when comparing interpretations of art by older students from China and the United States.\r\n<h3><strong>Vocabulary growth spurt<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nOne-year-olds typically have a vocabulary of about 50 words.\u00a0But by the time they become toddlers, they have a vocabulary of about 200 words and begin putting those words together in telegraphic speech (short phrases). This language growth spurt is called the\u00a0<strong>naming explosion<\/strong> because many early words are nouns (persons, places, or things).\r\n<h3><strong>Two-word sentences and telegraphic speech<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nWords are soon combined and 18-month-old toddlers can express themselves further by using phrases such as \u201cbaby bye-bye\u201d or \u201cdoggie pretty.\u201d Words needed to convey messages are used, but the articles and other parts of speech necessary for grammatical correctness are not yet included.\u00a0These\u00a0expressions sound like a telegraph (or perhaps a better analogy today would be that they read like a text message) where unnecessary words are not used.\u00a0\u201cGive baby ball\u201d is used rather than \u201cGive the baby the ball.\u201d\u00a0Or a text message of \u201cSend money now!\u201d rather than \u201cDear Mother. I really need some money to take care of my expenses.\" You get the idea.\r\n<h3><strong>Child-directed speech<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nWhy is a horse a \u201chorsie\u201d?\u00a0Have you ever wondered why adults tend to use \u201cbaby talk\u201d or that sing-song type of intonation and exaggeration used when talking to children?\u00a0This represents a universal tendency and is known as\u00a0child-directed speech\u00a0or motherese or parentese.\u00a0It involves exaggerating the vowel and consonant sounds, using a high-pitched voice, and delivering the phrase with great facial expression.\u00a0Why is this done?\u00a0It may be in order to clearly articulate the sounds of a word so that the child can hear the sounds involved.\u00a0Or it may be because when this type of speech is used, the infant pays more attention to the speaker and this sets up a pattern of interaction in which the speaker and listener are in tune with one another.\u00a0When I demonstrate this in class, the students certainly pay attention and look my way.\u00a0Amazing!\u00a0It also works in the college classroom!\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nThis video examines new research on infant-directed speech.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=ClGQ-GXS4WQ\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/WhyBabyTalkIsGoodForBabies_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"Why Baby Talk Is Good for Babies\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/cdb16c89-d06e-4214-89b7-9cd3931e2be9\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Theories of Language Development<\/h2>\r\nHow is language learned? Each major theory of language development emphasizes different aspects of language learning: that infants' brains are genetically attuned to language, that infants must be taught, and that infants' social impulses foster language learning.\u00a0The first two theories of language development represent two extremes in the level of interaction required for language to occur (Berk, 2007).\r\n<h3><strong>Chomsky and the language acquisition device<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nThis theory posits that infants teach themselves and that language learning is genetically programmed.\u00a0The view is known as <em>nativism<\/em>\u00a0and was\u00a0advocated by Noam Chomsky, who suggested that infants are equipped with a neurological construct referred to as the<strong> language acquisition device (LAD)<\/strong>, which makes infants ready for language.\u00a0The LAD allows children, as their brains develop, to derive the rules of grammar quickly and effectively from the speech they hear every day. Therefore, language develops as long as the infant is exposed to it.\u00a0No teaching, training, or reinforcement is required for language to develop.\u00a0Instead, language learning comes from a particular gene, brain maturation, and the overall human impulse to imitate.\r\n<h3><strong>Skinner and reinforcement<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nThis theory is the opposite of Chomsky's theory because it suggests that infants need to be taught language. This idea arises from behaviorism.\u00a0Learning theorist, B. F. Skinner, suggested that language develops through the use of reinforcement.\u00a0Sounds, words, gestures, and phrases are encouraged by following the behavior with attention, words of praise, treats, or anything that increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.\u00a0This repetition strengthens associations, so infants learn the language faster as parents speak to them often.\u00a0For example, when a baby says \"ma-ma,\" the mother smiles and repeats the sound while showing the baby attention. So, \"ma-ma\" is repeated due to this reinforcement.\r\n<h3><strong>Social pragmatics<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nAnother language theory emphasizes the child\u2019s active engagement in learning the language out of a need to communicate. Social impulses foster infant language because humans are social beings and we must communicate because we are dependent on each other for survival.\u00a0The\u00a0child seeks information, memorizes terms, imitates the speech heard from others, and learns to conceptualize using words as language is acquired. Tomasello &amp;\u00a0 Herrmann (2010) argue that all human infants, as opposed to chimpanzees, seek to master words and grammar in order to join the social world\u00a0[footnote]Tomasello, M. &amp; Hermann, E. (2010). Ape and human cognition. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(1), 3-8.[\/footnote] Many\u00a0would argue that all three of these theories (Chomsky's argument for nativism, conditioning, and social pragmatics) are important for fostering the acquisition of language (Berger, 2004).\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/5aa17bc6-6e9f-431c-89b2-b142a812424d\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]babbling:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]an infant's repetition of certain syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months old[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]holophrase:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]language acquisition device (LAD):[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]Chomsky's term for the hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn the language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]morpheme:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the smallest unit of language that conveys some type of meaning[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]naming explosion:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]phoneme:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a basic sound unit of a given language[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe stages of language development during infancy<\/li>\n<li>Compare theories of language development in toddlers<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_6422\" style=\"width: 193px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6422\" class=\"wp-image-6422\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/23134556\/boy-making-a-phone-call.jpg\" alt=\"Baby boy talking on phone.\" width=\"183\" height=\"275\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-6422\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Babies pick up on language skills really early on and can differentiate between sounds long before they can speak themselves.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Given the remarkable complexity of a language, one might expect that mastering a language would be an especially arduous task; indeed, for those of us trying to learn a second language as adults, this might seem to be true. However, young children master language very quickly with relative ease. B. F. Skinner (1957) proposed that language is learned through reinforcement. Noam Chomsky (1965) criticized this behaviorist approach, asserting instead that the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are biologically determined. The use of language develops in the absence of formal instruction and appears to follow a very similar pattern in children from vastly different cultures and backgrounds. It would seem, therefore, that we are born with a biological predisposition to acquire a language (Chomsky, 1965; Fern\u00e1ndez &amp; Cairns, 2011). Moreover, it appears that there is a critical period for language acquisition, such that this proficiency at acquiring language is maximal early in life; generally, as people age, the ease with which they acquire and master new languages diminishes (Johnson &amp; Newport, 1989; Lenneberg, 1967; Singleton, 1995).<\/p>\n<p>Children begin to learn about language from a very early age (Table 1). In fact, it appears that this is occurring even before we are born. Newborns show a preference for their mother\u2019s voice and appear to be able to discriminate between the language spoken by their mother and other languages. Babies are also attuned to the languages being used around them and show preferences for videos of faces that are moving in synchrony with the audio of spoken language versus videos that do not synchronize with the audio (Blossom &amp; Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke &amp; Cortelyou, 1981).<\/p>\n<table summary=\"A three column table describes Stages of Language and Communication Development. The columns, from left to right, are labeled \u201cStage; Age; and Developmental Language and Communication.\u201d The first row, respectively, reads: \u201c1; 0\u20133 months; and reflexive communication.\u201d The second row reads: \u201c2; 3\u20138 months; and reflexive communication, interest in others.\u201d The third row reads: \u201c3; 8\u201313 months; and intentional communication, sociability.\u201d The fourth row reads: \u201c4; 12\u201318 months; and first words.\u201d The fifth row reads: \u201c5; 18\u201324 months; and simple sentences of two words.\u201d The sixth row reads: \u201c6; 2\u20133 years; and sentences of three or more words.\u201d The seventh row reads: \u201c7; 3\u20135 years; and complex sentences, has conversations.\u201d\">\n<caption>Table 1. Stages of Language and Communication Development<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Stage<\/th>\n<th>Age<\/th>\n<th>Developmental Language and Communication<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>1<\/td>\n<td>0\u20133 months<\/td>\n<td>Reflexive communication<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>2<\/td>\n<td>3\u20138 months<\/td>\n<td>Reflexive communication; interest in others<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>3<\/td>\n<td>8\u201312 months<\/td>\n<td>Intentional communication; sociability<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>4<\/td>\n<td>12\u201318 months<\/td>\n<td>First words<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>5<\/td>\n<td>18\u201324 months<\/td>\n<td>Simple sentences of two words<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>6<\/td>\n<td>2\u20133 years<\/td>\n<td>Sentences of three or more words<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>7<\/td>\n<td>3\u20135 years<\/td>\n<td>Complex sentences; has conversations<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Each language has its own set of <strong>phonemes<\/strong> that are used to generate <strong>morphemes<\/strong>, words, and so on. Babies can discriminate among the sounds that make up a language (for example, they can tell the difference between the \u201cs\u201d in vision and the \u201css\u201d in fission); early on, they can differentiate between the sounds of all human languages, even those that do not occur in the languages that are used in their environments. However, by the time that they are about 1 year old, they can only discriminate among those phonemes that are used in the language or languages in their environments (Jensen, 2011; Werker &amp; Lalonde, 1988; Werker &amp; Tees, 1984).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>This video explains some of the research surrounding language acquisition in babies, particularly those learning a second language.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"How Do Babies Become Bilingual?\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Me_v82q0ins?start=157&#38;feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/HowDoBabiesBecomeBilingual_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;How Do Babies Become Bilingual?&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Newborn Communication<\/h2>\n<div id=\"attachment_788\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-788\" class=\"wp-image-788 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2016\/03\/16003529\/Baby_Face-300x218.jpg\" alt=\"Wide-eyed baby boy.\" width=\"300\" height=\"218\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-788\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Before they develop language, infants communicate using facial expressions.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Do newborns communicate?\u00a0Certainly, they do.\u00a0They do not, however, communicate with the use of language.\u00a0Instead, they communicate their thoughts and needs with body posture (being relaxed or still), gestures, cries, and facial expressions.\u00a0A person who spends adequate time with an infant can learn which cries indicate pain and which ones indicate hunger, discomfort, or frustration.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Intentional Vocalizations<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>Infants begin to vocalize and repeat vocalizations within the first couple of months of life.\u00a0That gurgling, musical vocalization called cooing can serve as a source of entertainment to an infant who has been laid down for a nap or seated in a carrier on a car ride.\u00a0Cooing serves as practice for vocalization. It also allows the infant to hear the sound of their own voice and try to repeat sounds that are entertaining.\u00a0Infants also begin to learn the pace and pause of conversation as they alternate their vocalization with that of someone else and then take their turn again when the other person\u2019s vocalization has stopped.\u00a0Cooing initially involves making vowel sounds like \u201coooo.\u201d Later, as the baby moves into babbling (see below), consonants are added to vocalizations such as \u201cnananananana.\u201d<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Babbling and Gesturing<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>Between 6 and 9 months, infants begin making even more elaborate vocalizations that include the sounds required for any language.\u00a0Guttural sounds, clicks, consonants, and vowel sounds stand ready to equip the child with the ability to repeat whatever sounds are characteristic of the language heard. These babies repeat certain syllables (ma-ma-ma, da-da-da, ba-ba-ba), a vocalization called <strong>babbling<\/strong> because of the way it sounds.\u00a0Eventually, these sounds will no longer be used as the infant grows more accustomed to a particular language.\u00a0Deaf babies also use gestures to communicate wants, reactions, and feelings.\u00a0Because gesturing seems to be easier than vocalization for some toddlers, sign language is sometimes taught to enhance one\u2019s ability to communicate by making use of the ease of gesturing.\u00a0The\u00a0rhythm and pattern of language are used when deaf babies sign just as when hearing babies babble.<\/p>\n<p>At around ten months of age, infants can understand more than they can say.\u00a0You may have experienced this phenomenon as well if you have ever tried to learn a second language.\u00a0You may have been able to follow a conversation more easily than to contribute to it.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_729d0d93-59a2-4262-a693-c8ed16697098\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/729d0d93-59a2-4262-a693-c8ed16697098?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_729d0d93-59a2-4262-a693-c8ed16697098\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3><strong>Holophrasic Speech<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>Children begin using their first words at about 12 or 13 months of age and may use partial words to convey thoughts at even younger ages.\u00a0These\u00a0one-word expressions are referred to as holophrasic speech (<strong>holophrase<\/strong>). For example, the child may say \u201cju\u201d for the word \u201cjuice\u201d and use this sound when referring to a bottle.\u00a0The\u00a0listener must interpret the meaning of the holophrase. When this is someone who has spent time with the child, interpretation is not too difficult.\u00a0They know that \u201cju\u201d means \u201cjuice\u201d which means the baby wants some milk!\u00a0But, someone who has not been around the child will have trouble knowing what is meant.\u00a0Imagine the parent who exclaims to a friend, \u201cEzra\u2019s talking all the time now!\u201d\u00a0The friend hears only \u201cju da ga\u201d which, the parent explains, means \u201cI want some milk when I go with Daddy.\u201d<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Underextension<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>A child who learns that a word stands for an object may initially think that the word can be used for only that particular object.\u00a0Only the family\u2019s Irish Setter is a \u201cdoggie.\u201d This\u00a0is referred to as underextension.\u00a0More often, however, a child may think that a label applies to all objects that are similar to the original object.\u00a0In overextension, all animals become \u201cdoggies,\u201d for example.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>First words and cultural influences<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>First words for English-speaking children tend to be nouns.\u00a0The\u00a0child labels objects such as a cup or a ball.\u00a0In a verb-friendly language such as Chinese, however, children may learn more verbs.\u00a0This may also be due to the different emphasis given to objects based on culture.\u00a0Chinese children may be taught to notice action and relationship between objects while children from the United States may be taught to name an object and its qualities (color, texture, size, etc.).\u00a0These\u00a0differences can be seen when comparing interpretations of art by older students from China and the United States.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Vocabulary growth spurt<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>One-year-olds typically have a vocabulary of about 50 words.\u00a0But by the time they become toddlers, they have a vocabulary of about 200 words and begin putting those words together in telegraphic speech (short phrases). This language growth spurt is called the\u00a0<strong>naming explosion<\/strong> because many early words are nouns (persons, places, or things).<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Two-word sentences and telegraphic speech<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>Words are soon combined and 18-month-old toddlers can express themselves further by using phrases such as \u201cbaby bye-bye\u201d or \u201cdoggie pretty.\u201d Words needed to convey messages are used, but the articles and other parts of speech necessary for grammatical correctness are not yet included.\u00a0These\u00a0expressions sound like a telegraph (or perhaps a better analogy today would be that they read like a text message) where unnecessary words are not used.\u00a0\u201cGive baby ball\u201d is used rather than \u201cGive the baby the ball.\u201d\u00a0Or a text message of \u201cSend money now!\u201d rather than \u201cDear Mother. I really need some money to take care of my expenses.&#8221; You get the idea.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Child-directed speech<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>Why is a horse a \u201chorsie\u201d?\u00a0Have you ever wondered why adults tend to use \u201cbaby talk\u201d or that sing-song type of intonation and exaggeration used when talking to children?\u00a0This represents a universal tendency and is known as\u00a0child-directed speech\u00a0or motherese or parentese.\u00a0It involves exaggerating the vowel and consonant sounds, using a high-pitched voice, and delivering the phrase with great facial expression.\u00a0Why is this done?\u00a0It may be in order to clearly articulate the sounds of a word so that the child can hear the sounds involved.\u00a0Or it may be because when this type of speech is used, the infant pays more attention to the speaker and this sets up a pattern of interaction in which the speaker and listener are in tune with one another.\u00a0When I demonstrate this in class, the students certainly pay attention and look my way.\u00a0Amazing!\u00a0It also works in the college classroom!<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>This video examines new research on infant-directed speech.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Why Baby Talk Is Good for Babies\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/ClGQ-GXS4WQ?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/WhyBabyTalkIsGoodForBabies_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;Why Baby Talk Is Good for Babies&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_cdb16c89-d06e-4214-89b7-9cd3931e2be9\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/cdb16c89-d06e-4214-89b7-9cd3931e2be9?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_cdb16c89-d06e-4214-89b7-9cd3931e2be9\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Theories of Language Development<\/h2>\n<p>How is language learned? Each major theory of language development emphasizes different aspects of language learning: that infants&#8217; brains are genetically attuned to language, that infants must be taught, and that infants&#8217; social impulses foster language learning.\u00a0The first two theories of language development represent two extremes in the level of interaction required for language to occur (Berk, 2007).<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Chomsky and the language acquisition device<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>This theory posits that infants teach themselves and that language learning is genetically programmed.\u00a0The view is known as <em>nativism<\/em>\u00a0and was\u00a0advocated by Noam Chomsky, who suggested that infants are equipped with a neurological construct referred to as the<strong> language acquisition device (LAD)<\/strong>, which makes infants ready for language.\u00a0The LAD allows children, as their brains develop, to derive the rules of grammar quickly and effectively from the speech they hear every day. Therefore, language develops as long as the infant is exposed to it.\u00a0No teaching, training, or reinforcement is required for language to develop.\u00a0Instead, language learning comes from a particular gene, brain maturation, and the overall human impulse to imitate.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Skinner and reinforcement<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>This theory is the opposite of Chomsky&#8217;s theory because it suggests that infants need to be taught language. This idea arises from behaviorism.\u00a0Learning theorist, B. F. Skinner, suggested that language develops through the use of reinforcement.\u00a0Sounds, words, gestures, and phrases are encouraged by following the behavior with attention, words of praise, treats, or anything that increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.\u00a0This repetition strengthens associations, so infants learn the language faster as parents speak to them often.\u00a0For example, when a baby says &#8220;ma-ma,&#8221; the mother smiles and repeats the sound while showing the baby attention. So, &#8220;ma-ma&#8221; is repeated due to this reinforcement.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Social pragmatics<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>Another language theory emphasizes the child\u2019s active engagement in learning the language out of a need to communicate. Social impulses foster infant language because humans are social beings and we must communicate because we are dependent on each other for survival.\u00a0The\u00a0child seeks information, memorizes terms, imitates the speech heard from others, and learns to conceptualize using words as language is acquired. Tomasello &amp;\u00a0 Herrmann (2010) argue that all human infants, as opposed to chimpanzees, seek to master words and grammar in order to join the social world\u00a0<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Tomasello, M. &amp; Hermann, E. (2010). Ape and human cognition. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(1), 3-8.\" id=\"return-footnote-251-1\" href=\"#footnote-251-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> Many\u00a0would argue that all three of these theories (Chomsky&#8217;s argument for nativism, conditioning, and social pragmatics) are important for fostering the acquisition of language (Berger, 2004).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_5aa17bc6-6e9f-431c-89b2-b142a812424d\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/5aa17bc6-6e9f-431c-89b2-b142a812424d?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_5aa17bc6-6e9f-431c-89b2-b142a812424d\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>babbling:<\/dt>\n<dd>an infant&#8217;s repetition of certain syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months old<\/dd>\n<dt>holophrase:<\/dt>\n<dd>a single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought<\/dd>\n<dt>language acquisition device (LAD):<\/dt>\n<dd>Chomsky&#8217;s term for the hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn the language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation<\/dd>\n<dt>morpheme:<\/dt>\n<dd>the smallest unit of language that conveys some type of meaning<\/dd>\n<dt>naming explosion:<\/dt>\n<dd>a sudden increase in an infant&#8217;s vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age<\/dd>\n<dt>phoneme:<\/dt>\n<dd>a basic sound unit of a given language<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-251\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Tera Jones for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Laura Overstreet. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\">http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Baby boy. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikimedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infant#\/media\/File:Baby_Face.JPG\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infant#\/media\/File:Baby_Face.JPG<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Language Development. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/language\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/language\/<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Introduction to Psychology. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Baby boy on phone. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Petr Kratochvil . <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Needpix. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.needpix.com\/photo\/download\/1341063\/baby-boy-call-child-communication-cute-expression-face-kid\">https:\/\/www.needpix.com\/photo\/download\/1341063\/baby-boy-call-child-communication-cute-expression-face-kid<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>How Do Babies Become Bilingual?. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: SciShow Psych. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Me_v82q0ins\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Me_v82q0ins<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Baby Talk. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Psych SciShow. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=ClGQ-GXS4WQ\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=ClGQ-GXS4WQ<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-251-1\">Tomasello, M. &amp; Hermann, E. (2010). Ape and human cognition. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(1), 3-8. <a href=\"#return-footnote-251-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":74,"menu_order":9,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology\",\"author\":\"Laura Overstreet\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Baby boy\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikimedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infant#\/media\/File:Baby_Face.JPG\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"How Do Babies Become Bilingual?\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"SciShow Psych\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Me_v82q0ins\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Tera Jones for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Language Development\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/language\/\",\"project\":\"Introduction to Psychology\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Baby Talk\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Psych SciShow\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=ClGQ-GXS4WQ\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Baby boy on phone\",\"author\":\"Petr Kratochvil \",\"organization\":\"Needpix\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.needpix.com\/photo\/download\/1341063\/baby-boy-call-child-communication-cute-expression-face-kid\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"59c613cb-17fd-4514-8d51-591ae444aa77, 939a8642-50f2-4629-b1a8-43167aee2f7e, ef4fa2b7-3cd8-46d4-80bc-ddadb2e9f7fe","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-251","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":212,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/251","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/74"}],"version-history":[{"count":30,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/251\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":7764,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/251\/revisions\/7764"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/212"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/251\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=251"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=251"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=251"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=251"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}