{"id":3354,"date":"2019-06-11T19:39:08","date_gmt":"2019-06-11T19:39:08","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=3354"},"modified":"2024-04-30T19:17:34","modified_gmt":"2024-04-30T19:17:34","slug":"stressors-in-middle-childhood","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/chapter\/stressors-in-middle-childhood\/","title":{"raw":"Stressors in Middle Childhood","rendered":"Stressors in Middle Childhood"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Examine short term-and long term consequences of divorce on children<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe issues regarding sexual abuse and children<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Family Life<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4947\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"410\"]<img class=\"wp-image-4947\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2019\/06\/17134150\/three-friends.jpg\" alt=\"Three smiling girls posing with peace signs for a picture.\" width=\"410\" height=\"272\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Family relationships change as preteens want to spend more time with friends.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nDuring middle childhood, children spend less time with parents and more time with peers. Parents may have to modify their approach to parenting to accommodate the child's growing independence. Authoritative parenting which uses reason and joint decision-making whenever possible may be the most effective approach (Berk, 2007). A more harsh form of parenting, authoritarian parenting, uses strict discipline and focuses on obedience. Children raised in authoritative households tend to be confident, successful, and happy (Chao, 2001; Stewart and Bond, 2002).\r\n<h3>Family Tasks<\/h3>\r\nOne of the ways to assess the quality of family life is to consider the tasks of families.\r\n\r\nBerger (2005) lists five family functions:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Providing food, clothing, and shelter<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Encouraging Learning<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Developing self-esteem<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Nurturing friendships with peers<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Providing harmony and stability<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nNotice that in addition to providing food, shelter, and clothing, families are responsible for helping the child learn, relate to others, and have a confident sense of self.\u00a0The\u00a0family provides a harmonious and stable environment for living.\u00a0A\u00a0good home environment is one in which the child's physical, cognitive, emotional, and social needs are adequately met.\u00a0Sometimes\u00a0families emphasize physical needs but ignore cognitive or emotional needs.\u00a0Other times, families pay close attention to physical needs and academic requirements, but may fail to nurture the child's friendships with peers or guide the child toward developing healthy relationships.\u00a0Parents might want to consider how it feels to live in the household.\u00a0Is it stressful and conflict-ridden?\u00a0Is it a place where family members enjoy being?\r\n<h2>Family Change: Divorce<\/h2>\r\nA\u00a0lot of attention has been given to the impact of divorce on the life of children.\u00a0The\u00a0assumption has been that divorce has a strong, negative impact on the child and that single-parent families are deficient in some way.\u00a0Research suggests 75-80 percent of children and adults who experience divorce suffer no long term effects (Hetherington &amp; Kelly, 2002).\u00a0Children of divorce and children who have not experienced divorce are more similar than different (Hetherington &amp; Kelly, 2002).\r\n\r\nMintz (2004) suggests that the alarmist view of divorce was due in part to the newness of divorce when rates in the United States began to climb in the late 1970s.\u00a0Adults reacting to the change grew up in the 1950s when rates were low.\u00a0As divorce has become more common and there is less stigma associated with divorce, this view has changed somewhat.\u00a0Social scientists have operated from the\u00a0divorce as a deficit model\u00a0emphasizing the problems of being from a \"broken home\" (Seccombe &amp;Warner, 2004). More recently, a more objective view of divorce, re-partnering, and remarriage indicates that divorce, remarriage, and life in stepfamilies can have a variety of effects.\u00a0The\u00a0exaggeration of the negative consequences of divorce has left the majority of those who do well hidden and subjected them to unnecessary stigma and social disapproval (Hetherington &amp; Kelly, 2002).\r\n\r\nThe tasks of families listed above are functions that can be fulfilled in a variety of family types-not just intact, two-parent households.\u00a0Harmony and stability can be achieved in many family forms and when it is disrupted, either through divorce, or efforts to blend families, or any other circumstances, the child suffers (Hetherington &amp; Kelly, 2002).\r\n<h3>Factors Affecting the Impact of Divorce<\/h3>\r\nAs you look at the consequences (both pro and con) of divorce and remarriage on children, keep these family functions in mind. Some negative consequences are a result of financial hardship rather than divorce per se (Drexler, 2005). Some positive consequences reflect improvements in meeting these functions. For instance, we have learned that positive self-esteem comes in part from a belief in the self and one's abilities rather than merely being complimented by others. In single-parent homes, children may be given more opportunity to discover their own abilities and gain independence that fosters self-esteem. If divorce leads to fighting\u00a0between the parents and the child is included in these arguments, the self-esteem may suffer.\r\n\r\nThe impact of divorce on children depends on a number of factors. The\u00a0degree of conflict prior to the divorce\u00a0plays a role. If the divorce means a reduction in tensions, the child may feel relief. If the parents have kept their conflicts hidden, the announcement of a divorce can come as a shock and be met with enormous resentment. Another factor that has a great impact on the child concerns\u00a0financial hardships\u00a0they may suffer, especially if financial support is inadequate. Another difficult situation for children of divorce is the position they are put into if the\u00a0parents continue to argue\u00a0and fight-especially if they bring the children into those arguments.\r\n\r\n<strong>Short-term consequences<\/strong>:\u00a0In roughly the first year following divorce, children may exhibit some of these short-term effects:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><strong>Grief over losses suffered<\/strong>. The child will grieve the loss of the parent they no longer see as frequently. The child may also grieve about other family members that are no longer available. Grief sometimes comes in the form of sadness, but it can also be experienced as anger or withdrawal. Preschool-aged boys may act out aggressively while the same aged girls may become more quiet and withdrawn. Older children may feel depressed.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Reduced Standard of Living<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">. Very often, divorce means a change in the amount of money coming into the household. Children experience in new constraints on spending or entertainment. School-aged children, especially, may notice that they can no longer have toys,\u00a0clothing, or other items to which they've grown accustomed, or it may mean that there is less eating out or cancelling satellite television, and so on. The custodial parent may experience stress at not being able to rely on child support payments or having the same level of income as before. This can affect decisions regarding healthcare, vacations, rents, mortgages, and other expenditures. The stress can result in less happiness and relaxation in the home. The parent who has to take on more work may also be less available to the children.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Adjusting to Transitions<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">. Children may also have to adjust to other changes accompanying a divorce. The divorce might mean moving to a new home and changing schools or friends. It might mean leaving a neighborhood that has meant a lot to them as well.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<strong>Long-Term consequences<\/strong>:\u00a0The following are some effects found after the first year of a divorce:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><strong>Economic\/Occupational Status<\/strong>. One of the most commonly cited long-term effects of divorce is that children of divorce may have lower levels of education or occupational status. This may be a consequence of lower income and resources for funding education rather than divorce per se.\u00a0In those households where economic hardship does not occur, there may be no impact on education or occupational status (Drexler, 2005).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Improved Relationships with the Custodial Parent<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"> (usually the mother): The majority of custodial parents are mothers (approximately 80.4 percent) and 19.6 percent of custodial parents are fathers,[footnote]Wolf, Jennifer. The Single Parent Statistics Based on Census Data. Verywell Family. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.verywellfamily.com\/single-parent-census-data-2997668\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.verywellfamily.com\/single-parent-census-data-2997668<\/a>.[\/footnote] Shared custody is on the rise, however, and shows promising social, academic, and psychological results for the children.[footnote]Warshak, Richard (2017). <em>After divorce, shared parenting is best for children\u2019s health and development<\/em>. Stat. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.statnews.com\/2017\/05\/26\/divorce-shared-parenting-children-health\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.statnews.com\/2017\/05\/26\/divorce-shared-parenting-children-health\/<\/a>.[\/footnote]<span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">\u00a0<\/span>Children from single-parent families talk to their mothers more often than children of two-parent families (McLanahan and Sandefur, 1994).\u00a0Most children of divorce lead happy, well-adjusted lives and develop stronger, positive relationships with their custodial parent (Seccombe and Warner, 2004). In a study of college-age respondents, Arditti (1999) found that increasing closeness and a movement toward more democratic parenting styles was experienced. Others have also found that relationships between mothers and children become closer and stronger (Guttman, 1993) and suggest that greater equality and less rigid parenting is beneficial after divorce (Steward, Copeland, Chester, Malley, and Barenbaum, 1997).<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Greater\u00a0emotional independence in sons<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">. Drexler (2005) notes that sons who are raised by mothers only develop an emotional sensitivity to others that is beneficial in relationships.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Feeling more anxious in their own love relationships.<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"> Children of divorce may feel more anxious about their own relationships as adults. This may reflect a fear of divorce if things go wrong, or it may be a result of setting higher expectations for their own relationships.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Adjustment of the custodial parent<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">. Furstenberg and Cherlin (1991) believe that the primary factor influencing the way that children adjust to divorce is the way the custodial parent adjusts to the divorce. If that parent is adjusting well, the children will benefit. This may explain a good deal of the variation we find in children of divorce.\u00a0Adults going through divorce should consider good self-care as beneficial to the children-not as self-indulgent.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Mental health issues<\/strong>: Some studies suggest that anxiety and depression that are common in children and adults within the first year of divorce may actually not resolve. A 15-year study by\u00a0Bohman, L\u00e5ftman, P\u00e4\u00e4ren, Jonsson (2017) (https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5370459\/) suggests that parental separation significantly increases the risk for depression 15 years later when depression rates were compared to matched controls. In fact, the risk of depression was related more strongly with parental conflict and parental separation than it was with parental depression!<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/17bc7ef1-4bcf-4fee-b662-35230bcaabbd\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Sexual Abuse in Middle Childhood<\/h2>\r\nResearchers estimate that 1 out of 4 girls and 1 out of 10 boys have been sexually abused (Valente, 2005).\u00a0The\u00a0median age for sexual abuse is 8 or 9 years for both boys and girls (Finkelhor et. al. 1990).\u00a0Most boys and girls are sexually abused by a male.\u00a0Childhood\u00a0sexual abuse\u00a0is defined as any sexual contact between a child and an adult or a much older child.\u00a0Incest\u00a0refers to sexual contact between a child and family members.\u00a0In each of these cases, the child is exploited by an older person without regard for the child's developmental immaturity and inability to understand the sexual behavior (Steele, 1986).\r\n\r\nAlthough rates of sexual abuse are higher for girls than for boys, boys may be less likely to report abuse because of the cultural expectation that boys should be able to take care of themselves and because of the stigma attached to homosexual encounters (Finkelhor et. al. 1990).\u00a0Girls are more likely to be victims of incest and boys are more likely to be abused by someone outside the family.\u00a0Sexual abuse can create feelings of self-blame, betrayal, and feelings of shame and guilt (Valente, 2005).\u00a0Sexual abuse is particularly damaging when the perpetrator is someone the child trusts. Victims of sexual abuse may suffer from depression, anxiety, problems with intimacy, and suicide (Valente, 2005). Sexual abuse has additional impacts as well. Studies suggest that children who have been sexually abused have an increased risk of eating disorders and sleep disturbances. Further, sexual abuse can lead to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.\r\n\r\nBeing sexually abused as a child can have a powerful impact on self-concept.\u00a0The concept of\u00a0<strong>false self-training\u00a0<\/strong>(Davis, 1999) refers to holding a child to adult standards while denying the child's developmental needs.\u00a0Sexual abuse is just one example of false self-training.\u00a0Children are held to adult standards of desirableness and sexuality while their level of cognitive, psychological, and emotional immaturity is ignored.\u00a0Consider how confusing it might be for a 9-year-old girl who has physically matured early to be thought of as a potential sex partner.\u00a0Her cognitive,\u00a0psychological, and emotional state do not equip her to make decisions about sexuality or, perhaps, to know that she can say no to sexual advances.\u00a0She may feel like a 9-year-old in all ways and be embarrassed and ashamed of her physical development.\u00a0Girls who mature early have problems with low self-esteem because of the failure of others (family members, teachers, ministers, peers, advertisers, and others) to recognize and respect their developmental needs.\u00a0Overall, youth are more likely to be victimized because they do not have control over their contact with offenders (parents, babysitters, etc.) and have no means of escape (Finkelhor and Dzuiba-Leatherman, in Davis, 1999).\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/60fcaf57-283f-44d8-8e5b-6050e9faec7c\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]false self-training:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]holding a child to adult standards while denying the child's developmental needs[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Examine short term-and long term consequences of divorce on children<\/li>\n<li>Describe issues regarding sexual abuse and children<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Family Life<\/h2>\n<div id=\"attachment_4947\" style=\"width: 420px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4947\" class=\"wp-image-4947\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2019\/06\/17134150\/three-friends.jpg\" alt=\"Three smiling girls posing with peace signs for a picture.\" width=\"410\" height=\"272\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4947\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Family relationships change as preteens want to spend more time with friends.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>During middle childhood, children spend less time with parents and more time with peers. Parents may have to modify their approach to parenting to accommodate the child&#8217;s growing independence. Authoritative parenting which uses reason and joint decision-making whenever possible may be the most effective approach (Berk, 2007). A more harsh form of parenting, authoritarian parenting, uses strict discipline and focuses on obedience. Children raised in authoritative households tend to be confident, successful, and happy (Chao, 2001; Stewart and Bond, 2002).<\/p>\n<h3>Family Tasks<\/h3>\n<p>One of the ways to assess the quality of family life is to consider the tasks of families.<\/p>\n<p>Berger (2005) lists five family functions:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Providing food, clothing, and shelter<\/li>\n<li>Encouraging Learning<\/li>\n<li>Developing self-esteem<\/li>\n<li>Nurturing friendships with peers<\/li>\n<li>Providing harmony and stability<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Notice that in addition to providing food, shelter, and clothing, families are responsible for helping the child learn, relate to others, and have a confident sense of self.\u00a0The\u00a0family provides a harmonious and stable environment for living.\u00a0A\u00a0good home environment is one in which the child&#8217;s physical, cognitive, emotional, and social needs are adequately met.\u00a0Sometimes\u00a0families emphasize physical needs but ignore cognitive or emotional needs.\u00a0Other times, families pay close attention to physical needs and academic requirements, but may fail to nurture the child&#8217;s friendships with peers or guide the child toward developing healthy relationships.\u00a0Parents might want to consider how it feels to live in the household.\u00a0Is it stressful and conflict-ridden?\u00a0Is it a place where family members enjoy being?<\/p>\n<h2>Family Change: Divorce<\/h2>\n<p>A\u00a0lot of attention has been given to the impact of divorce on the life of children.\u00a0The\u00a0assumption has been that divorce has a strong, negative impact on the child and that single-parent families are deficient in some way.\u00a0Research suggests 75-80 percent of children and adults who experience divorce suffer no long term effects (Hetherington &amp; Kelly, 2002).\u00a0Children of divorce and children who have not experienced divorce are more similar than different (Hetherington &amp; Kelly, 2002).<\/p>\n<p>Mintz (2004) suggests that the alarmist view of divorce was due in part to the newness of divorce when rates in the United States began to climb in the late 1970s.\u00a0Adults reacting to the change grew up in the 1950s when rates were low.\u00a0As divorce has become more common and there is less stigma associated with divorce, this view has changed somewhat.\u00a0Social scientists have operated from the\u00a0divorce as a deficit model\u00a0emphasizing the problems of being from a &#8220;broken home&#8221; (Seccombe &amp;Warner, 2004). More recently, a more objective view of divorce, re-partnering, and remarriage indicates that divorce, remarriage, and life in stepfamilies can have a variety of effects.\u00a0The\u00a0exaggeration of the negative consequences of divorce has left the majority of those who do well hidden and subjected them to unnecessary stigma and social disapproval (Hetherington &amp; Kelly, 2002).<\/p>\n<p>The tasks of families listed above are functions that can be fulfilled in a variety of family types-not just intact, two-parent households.\u00a0Harmony and stability can be achieved in many family forms and when it is disrupted, either through divorce, or efforts to blend families, or any other circumstances, the child suffers (Hetherington &amp; Kelly, 2002).<\/p>\n<h3>Factors Affecting the Impact of Divorce<\/h3>\n<p>As you look at the consequences (both pro and con) of divorce and remarriage on children, keep these family functions in mind. Some negative consequences are a result of financial hardship rather than divorce per se (Drexler, 2005). Some positive consequences reflect improvements in meeting these functions. For instance, we have learned that positive self-esteem comes in part from a belief in the self and one&#8217;s abilities rather than merely being complimented by others. In single-parent homes, children may be given more opportunity to discover their own abilities and gain independence that fosters self-esteem. If divorce leads to fighting\u00a0between the parents and the child is included in these arguments, the self-esteem may suffer.<\/p>\n<p>The impact of divorce on children depends on a number of factors. The\u00a0degree of conflict prior to the divorce\u00a0plays a role. If the divorce means a reduction in tensions, the child may feel relief. If the parents have kept their conflicts hidden, the announcement of a divorce can come as a shock and be met with enormous resentment. Another factor that has a great impact on the child concerns\u00a0financial hardships\u00a0they may suffer, especially if financial support is inadequate. Another difficult situation for children of divorce is the position they are put into if the\u00a0parents continue to argue\u00a0and fight-especially if they bring the children into those arguments.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Short-term consequences<\/strong>:\u00a0In roughly the first year following divorce, children may exhibit some of these short-term effects:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><strong>Grief over losses suffered<\/strong>. The child will grieve the loss of the parent they no longer see as frequently. The child may also grieve about other family members that are no longer available. Grief sometimes comes in the form of sadness, but it can also be experienced as anger or withdrawal. Preschool-aged boys may act out aggressively while the same aged girls may become more quiet and withdrawn. Older children may feel depressed.<\/li>\n<li><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Reduced Standard of Living<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">. Very often, divorce means a change in the amount of money coming into the household. Children experience in new constraints on spending or entertainment. School-aged children, especially, may notice that they can no longer have toys,\u00a0clothing, or other items to which they&#8217;ve grown accustomed, or it may mean that there is less eating out or cancelling satellite television, and so on. The custodial parent may experience stress at not being able to rely on child support payments or having the same level of income as before. This can affect decisions regarding healthcare, vacations, rents, mortgages, and other expenditures. The stress can result in less happiness and relaxation in the home. The parent who has to take on more work may also be less available to the children.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Adjusting to Transitions<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">. Children may also have to adjust to other changes accompanying a divorce. The divorce might mean moving to a new home and changing schools or friends. It might mean leaving a neighborhood that has meant a lot to them as well.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><strong>Long-Term consequences<\/strong>:\u00a0The following are some effects found after the first year of a divorce:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><strong>Economic\/Occupational Status<\/strong>. One of the most commonly cited long-term effects of divorce is that children of divorce may have lower levels of education or occupational status. This may be a consequence of lower income and resources for funding education rather than divorce per se.\u00a0In those households where economic hardship does not occur, there may be no impact on education or occupational status (Drexler, 2005).<\/li>\n<li><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Improved Relationships with the Custodial Parent<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"> (usually the mother): The majority of custodial parents are mothers (approximately 80.4 percent) and 19.6 percent of custodial parents are fathers,<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Wolf, Jennifer. The Single Parent Statistics Based on Census Data. Verywell Family. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.verywellfamily.com\/single-parent-census-data-2997668.\" id=\"return-footnote-3354-1\" href=\"#footnote-3354-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> Shared custody is on the rise, however, and shows promising social, academic, and psychological results for the children.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Warshak, Richard (2017). After divorce, shared parenting is best for children\u2019s health and development. Stat. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.statnews.com\/2017\/05\/26\/divorce-shared-parenting-children-health\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-3354-2\" href=\"#footnote-3354-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><span style=\"color: #3366ff;\">\u00a0<\/span>Children from single-parent families talk to their mothers more often than children of two-parent families (McLanahan and Sandefur, 1994).\u00a0Most children of divorce lead happy, well-adjusted lives and develop stronger, positive relationships with their custodial parent (Seccombe and Warner, 2004). In a study of college-age respondents, Arditti (1999) found that increasing closeness and a movement toward more democratic parenting styles was experienced. Others have also found that relationships between mothers and children become closer and stronger (Guttman, 1993) and suggest that greater equality and less rigid parenting is beneficial after divorce (Steward, Copeland, Chester, Malley, and Barenbaum, 1997).<\/span><\/li>\n<li><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Greater\u00a0emotional independence in sons<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">. Drexler (2005) notes that sons who are raised by mothers only develop an emotional sensitivity to others that is beneficial in relationships.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Feeling more anxious in their own love relationships.<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"> Children of divorce may feel more anxious about their own relationships as adults. This may reflect a fear of divorce if things go wrong, or it may be a result of setting higher expectations for their own relationships.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Adjustment of the custodial parent<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">. Furstenberg and Cherlin (1991) believe that the primary factor influencing the way that children adjust to divorce is the way the custodial parent adjusts to the divorce. If that parent is adjusting well, the children will benefit. This may explain a good deal of the variation we find in children of divorce.\u00a0Adults going through divorce should consider good self-care as beneficial to the children-not as self-indulgent.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><strong>Mental health issues<\/strong>: Some studies suggest that anxiety and depression that are common in children and adults within the first year of divorce may actually not resolve. A 15-year study by\u00a0Bohman, L\u00e5ftman, P\u00e4\u00e4ren, Jonsson (2017) (https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5370459\/) suggests that parental separation significantly increases the risk for depression 15 years later when depression rates were compared to matched controls. In fact, the risk of depression was related more strongly with parental conflict and parental separation than it was with parental depression!<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_17bc7ef1-4bcf-4fee-b662-35230bcaabbd\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/17bc7ef1-4bcf-4fee-b662-35230bcaabbd?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_17bc7ef1-4bcf-4fee-b662-35230bcaabbd\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Sexual Abuse in Middle Childhood<\/h2>\n<p>Researchers estimate that 1 out of 4 girls and 1 out of 10 boys have been sexually abused (Valente, 2005).\u00a0The\u00a0median age for sexual abuse is 8 or 9 years for both boys and girls (Finkelhor et. al. 1990).\u00a0Most boys and girls are sexually abused by a male.\u00a0Childhood\u00a0sexual abuse\u00a0is defined as any sexual contact between a child and an adult or a much older child.\u00a0Incest\u00a0refers to sexual contact between a child and family members.\u00a0In each of these cases, the child is exploited by an older person without regard for the child&#8217;s developmental immaturity and inability to understand the sexual behavior (Steele, 1986).<\/p>\n<p>Although rates of sexual abuse are higher for girls than for boys, boys may be less likely to report abuse because of the cultural expectation that boys should be able to take care of themselves and because of the stigma attached to homosexual encounters (Finkelhor et. al. 1990).\u00a0Girls are more likely to be victims of incest and boys are more likely to be abused by someone outside the family.\u00a0Sexual abuse can create feelings of self-blame, betrayal, and feelings of shame and guilt (Valente, 2005).\u00a0Sexual abuse is particularly damaging when the perpetrator is someone the child trusts. Victims of sexual abuse may suffer from depression, anxiety, problems with intimacy, and suicide (Valente, 2005). Sexual abuse has additional impacts as well. Studies suggest that children who have been sexually abused have an increased risk of eating disorders and sleep disturbances. Further, sexual abuse can lead to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.<\/p>\n<p>Being sexually abused as a child can have a powerful impact on self-concept.\u00a0The concept of\u00a0<strong>false self-training\u00a0<\/strong>(Davis, 1999) refers to holding a child to adult standards while denying the child&#8217;s developmental needs.\u00a0Sexual abuse is just one example of false self-training.\u00a0Children are held to adult standards of desirableness and sexuality while their level of cognitive, psychological, and emotional immaturity is ignored.\u00a0Consider how confusing it might be for a 9-year-old girl who has physically matured early to be thought of as a potential sex partner.\u00a0Her cognitive,\u00a0psychological, and emotional state do not equip her to make decisions about sexuality or, perhaps, to know that she can say no to sexual advances.\u00a0She may feel like a 9-year-old in all ways and be embarrassed and ashamed of her physical development.\u00a0Girls who mature early have problems with low self-esteem because of the failure of others (family members, teachers, ministers, peers, advertisers, and others) to recognize and respect their developmental needs.\u00a0Overall, youth are more likely to be victimized because they do not have control over their contact with offenders (parents, babysitters, etc.) and have no means of escape (Finkelhor and Dzuiba-Leatherman, in Davis, 1999).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_60fcaf57-283f-44d8-8e5b-6050e9faec7c\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/60fcaf57-283f-44d8-8e5b-6050e9faec7c?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_60fcaf57-283f-44d8-8e5b-6050e9faec7c\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>false self-training:<\/dt>\n<dd>holding a child to adult standards while denying the child&#8217;s developmental needs<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-3354\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Stephanie Loalada for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Laura Overstreet. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\">http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Sexual Abuse. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Child_sexual_abuse\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Child_sexual_abuse<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Three friends. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Peter Griffin. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Needpix. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.needpix.com\/photo\/download\/1328232\/people-girls-girlfriends-happy-friends-youngpeople-pre-teens-youngsters-three-friends\">https:\/\/www.needpix.com\/photo\/download\/1328232\/people-girls-girlfriends-happy-friends-youngpeople-pre-teens-youngsters-three-friends<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-3354-1\">Wolf, Jennifer. The Single Parent Statistics Based on Census Data. Verywell Family. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.verywellfamily.com\/single-parent-census-data-2997668\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.verywellfamily.com\/single-parent-census-data-2997668<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-3354-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-3354-2\">Warshak, Richard (2017). <em>After divorce, shared parenting is best for children\u2019s health and development<\/em>. Stat. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.statnews.com\/2017\/05\/26\/divorce-shared-parenting-children-health\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.statnews.com\/2017\/05\/26\/divorce-shared-parenting-children-health\/<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-3354-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":12,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology\",\"author\":\"Laura Overstreet\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Stephanie Loalada for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"Three friends\",\"author\":\"Peter Griffin\",\"organization\":\"Needpix\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.needpix.com\/photo\/download\/1328232\/people-girls-girlfriends-happy-friends-youngpeople-pre-teens-youngsters-three-friends\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Sexual Abuse\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Child_sexual_abuse\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"35c9acbf-804d-492e-b9dc-d0a69c807ef4, ccf75f7b-1ee1-4f80-bd79-561d383c4d9e, f3ada3eb-51b3-4710-ad4d-2ac875e1a6f3","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-3354","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":265,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/3354","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":33,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/3354\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":7796,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/3354\/revisions\/7796"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/265"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/3354\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3354"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=3354"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=3354"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=3354"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}