{"id":336,"date":"2014-09-28T02:43:08","date_gmt":"2014-09-28T02:43:08","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/lifespandevelopment1x1\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=336"},"modified":"2024-04-30T19:24:26","modified_gmt":"2024-04-30T19:24:26","slug":"theories-of-psychosocial-development","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/chapter\/theories-of-psychosocial-development\/","title":{"raw":"Theories of Early Adult Psychosocial Development","rendered":"Theories of Early Adult Psychosocial Development"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe Erikson's stage of intimacy vs. isolation<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Summarize Levinson's theory of early adulthood transitions<span style=\"color: #ff6600;\">\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Erikson\u2019s Theory<\/h2>\r\n<h3><strong>Intimacy vs. Isolation<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3928\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"522\"]<img class=\"wp-image-3928\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/25120709\/pair-3852277_1920.jpg\" alt=\"A man and woman smile while leaning closer to look at a photograph together.\" width=\"522\" height=\"349\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Young adulthood is a time to connect with others in both friendships and romantic relationships.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nErikson (1950)\u00a0believed that the main task of early adulthood is to establish intimate relationships and not feel isolated from others.\u00a0Intimacy does not necessarily involve romance; it involves caring about another and sharing one's self without losing one's self. This developmental crisis of \"intimacy versus isolation\" is affected by how the adolescent crisis of \"identity versus role confusion\" was resolved (in addition to how the earlier developmental crises in infancy and childhood were resolved). The young adult might be afraid to get too close to someone else and lose her or his sense of self, or the young adult might define themselves in terms of another person. Intimate relationships are more difficult if one is still struggling with identity.\u00a0Achieving a sense of identity is a life-long process, but there are periods of identity crisis and stability.\u00a0And, according to Erikson, having some sense of identity is essential for intimate relationships.[footnote]Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York, NY: Norton.[\/footnote] Although, consider what that would mean for previous generations of women who may have defined themselves through their husbands and marriages, or for Eastern cultures today that value interdependence rather than independence.\r\n<h3><strong>Friendships as a source of intimacy<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3927\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"601\"]<img class=\"wp-image-3927\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/25120322\/friends-graduation-high-school-457950.jpg\" alt=\"Five friends from the same sorority posing in graduation gowns.\" width=\"601\" height=\"450\" \/> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Many young adulthoods find intimacy through friendships rather than through committed romantic relationships. The increase of young adults attending college has contributed to this trend.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn our twenties, intimacy needs may be met in friendships rather than with partners.\u00a0This is especially true in the United States today as many young adults postpone making long-term commitments to partners either in marriage or in cohabitation.\u00a0The kinds of friendships shared by women tend to differ from those shared by men (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Difference_theory\">Tannen, 1990<\/a>).\u00a0Friendships between men are more likely to involve sharing information, providing solutions, or focusing on activities rather than discussing problems or emotions.\u00a0Men tend to discuss opinions or factual information or spend time together in an activity of mutual interest.\u00a0Friendships between women are more likely to focus on sharing weaknesses, emotions, or problems.\u00a0Women talk about difficulties they are having in other relationships and express their sadness, frustrations, and joys.\u00a0These differences in approaches could lead to problems when men and women come together.\u00a0She may want to vent about a problem she is having; he may want to provide a solution and move on to some activity.\u00a0But when he offers a solution, she thinks he does not care!\u00a0Effective communication is the key to good relationships.\r\n\r\nMany argue that other-sex friendships become more difficult for heterosexual men and women because of the unspoken question about whether the friendships will lead to a romantic involvement. Although common during adolescence and early adulthood, these friendships may be considered threatening once a person is in a long-term relationship or marriage. Consequently, friendships may diminish once a person has a partner or single friends may be replaced with couple friends.[footnote]Ward, Adrian (2012). Men and Women Can't Be Just Friends. Scientific American. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/men-and-women-cant-be-just-friends\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/men-and-women-cant-be-just-friends\/<\/a>.[\/footnote]<del><\/del>\r\n<h3><strong>Gaining Adult Status<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nMany of the developmental tasks of early adulthood involve becoming part of the adult world and gaining independence.\u00a0Young adults sometimes complain that they are not treated with respect, especially if they are put in positions of authority over older workers. Consequently, young adults may emphasize their age to gain credibility from those who are even slightly younger.\u00a0\u201cYou\u2019re only 23?\u00a0I\u2019m 27!\u201d a young adult might exclaim. [Note:\u00a0This kind of statement is much less likely to come from someone in their 40s!]\r\n\r\nThe focus of early adulthood is often on the future.\u00a0Many aspects of life are on hold while people go to school, go to work, and prepare for a brighter future.\u00a0There may be a belief that the hurried life now lived will improve \u2018as soon as I finish school\u2019 or \u2018as soon as I\u00a0get promoted\u2019 or \u2018as soon as the children get a little older.\u2019\u00a0As a result, time may seem to pass rather quickly.\u00a0The day consists of meeting many demands that these tasks bring.\u00a0The incentive for working so hard is that it will all result in a better future.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/9e04b3ee-8371-4c24-9025-830b6a397501\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Levinson\u2019s Theory<\/h2>\r\nIn 1978, Daniel Levinson published a book entitled, <em>The Seasons of a Man\u2019s Life<\/em>\u00a0in which he presented a theory of development in adulthood.\u00a0Levinson\u2019s work was based on in-depth interviews with 40 men between the ages of 35-45. According to Levinson, young adults have an image of the future that motivates them.\u00a0This image is called \u201cthe dream\u201d and for the men interviewed, it was a dream of how their career paths would progress and where they would be at midlife.<span style=\"color: #339966;\">\u00a0<\/span>Dreams are very motivating.\u00a0Dreams of a home bring excitement to couples as they look, save, and fantasize about how life will be.\u00a0Dreams of careers motivate students to continue in school as they fantasize about how much their hard work will pay off.\u00a0Dreams of playgrounds on a summer day inspire would-be parents. A dream is perfect and retains that perfection as long as it remains in the future.\u00a0But as the realization of it moves closer, it may or may not measure up to its image.\u00a0If it does, all is well.\u00a0But if it does not, the image must be replaced or modified.\u00a0And so, in adulthood, plans are made, efforts follow, and plans are reevaluated.\u00a0This creating and recreating characterizes Levinson\u2019s theory.<em>[<\/em>footnote]Levinson, D. (1978). <em>The seasons of a man's life<\/em>. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.[\/footnote] (The shift from idealistic dreams to more realistic experiences might remind us of the cognitive development progression from formal to postformal thought in adulthood.)\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Levinson\u2019s stages (at least up to midlife) are presented below (Levinson, 1978).[footnote]Levinson, D. (1978) The seasons of a man's life. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.[\/footnote]\u00a0He suggested that periods of transition last about five years and periods of stability last about seven years.\u00a0The ages presented below are based on life in the middle-class several decades ago.\u00a0Think about how these ages and transitions might be different today, or in other cultures, or for women compared to men.<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span class=\"tight\">Early adult transition (17-22): Leaving home, leaving family; making first choices about career and education\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span class=\"tight\">Entering the adult world (22-28): Committing to an occupation, defining goals, finding intimate relationships<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span class=\"tight\">Age 30 transition (28-33): Reevaluating those choices and perhaps making modifications or changing one\u2019s attitude toward love and work<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span class=\"tight\">Settling down (33 to 40): Reinvesting in work and family commitments; becoming involved in the community<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span class=\"tight\">Midlife transition (40-45): Reevaluating previous commitments; making dramatic changes if necessary; giving expression to previously ignored talents or aspirations; feeling more of a sense of urgency about life and its meaning<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span class=\"tight\">Entering middle adulthood (45-50): Committing to new choices made and placing one\u2019s energies into these commitments<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Nearly twenty years after his original research, Levinson interviewed 45 women ages 35-45 and published the book, <em>The seasons of a woman's life.<\/em>[footnote]Levinson, D. (1996). The seasons of a woman's life. New York, NY: Ballantine Books.[\/footnote] He reported similar patterns with women, although women held a \"split dream\"\u2014an image of the future in both work and family life and a concern with the timing and coordination of the two. Traditionally, by working outside the home, men were seen as taking care of their families. However, for women, working outside the home and taking care of their families were perceived as separate and competing for their time and attention. Hence, one aspect of the women's dreams was focused on one goal for several years and then their time and attention shifted towards the other, often resulting in delays in women's career dreams.<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3929\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"587\"]<img class=\"wp-image-3929\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/25121045\/people-1230872_1920.jpg\" alt=\"Three women around 40 years old, celebrating at a party by blowing confetti.\" width=\"587\" height=\"329\" \/> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. Women are often torn between caring for their families and advancing their careers outside of the home.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAdulthood, then, is a period of building and rebuilding one\u2019s life.\u00a0Many of the decisions that are made in early adulthood are made before a person has had enough experience to really understand the consequences of such decisions.\u00a0And, perhaps, many of these initial\u00a0decisions are made with one goal in mind - to be se<span style=\"color: #333333;\">en as an adult.\u00a0As a result, early decisions may be driven more by the expectations of others.\u00a0For example, imagine someone who chose a career path based on other\u2019s advice but now finds that the job is not what was expected.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">The age 30 transition may involve recommitting to the same job, not because it\u2019s stimulating, but because it pays well; or the person may decide to go back to school and change careers.\u00a0Settling down may involve settling down with a new set of expectations.\u00a0As the adult gains status, they may be freer to make more independent choices.\u00a0And sometimes these are very different from those previously made.\u00a0The midlife transition differs from the age 30 transition in<\/span> that the person is more aware of how much time has gone by and how much time is left.\u00a0This brings a sense of urgency and impatience about making changes.\u00a0The future focus of early adulthood gives way to an emphasis on the present in midlife\u2013we will explore this in our next module. Overall, Levinson calls our attention to the dynamic nature of adulthood.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/253628f6-a9e5-4d22-9f23-5936705a9ae2\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>How well do you think Levinson\u2019s theory translates culturally?\u00a0Do you think that personal desire and a concern with reconciling dreams with the realities of work and family is equally important in all cultures?\u00a0Do you think these considerations are equally important in all social classes, races and ethnic groups?\u00a0Why or why not? How might this model be modified in today's economy?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe Erikson&#8217;s stage of intimacy vs. isolation<\/li>\n<li>Summarize Levinson&#8217;s theory of early adulthood transitions<span style=\"color: #ff6600;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Erikson\u2019s Theory<\/h2>\n<h3><strong>Intimacy vs. Isolation<\/strong><\/h3>\n<div id=\"attachment_3928\" style=\"width: 532px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3928\" class=\"wp-image-3928\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/25120709\/pair-3852277_1920.jpg\" alt=\"A man and woman smile while leaning closer to look at a photograph together.\" width=\"522\" height=\"349\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-3928\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Young adulthood is a time to connect with others in both friendships and romantic relationships.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Erikson (1950)\u00a0believed that the main task of early adulthood is to establish intimate relationships and not feel isolated from others.\u00a0Intimacy does not necessarily involve romance; it involves caring about another and sharing one&#8217;s self without losing one&#8217;s self. This developmental crisis of &#8220;intimacy versus isolation&#8221; is affected by how the adolescent crisis of &#8220;identity versus role confusion&#8221; was resolved (in addition to how the earlier developmental crises in infancy and childhood were resolved). The young adult might be afraid to get too close to someone else and lose her or his sense of self, or the young adult might define themselves in terms of another person. Intimate relationships are more difficult if one is still struggling with identity.\u00a0Achieving a sense of identity is a life-long process, but there are periods of identity crisis and stability.\u00a0And, according to Erikson, having some sense of identity is essential for intimate relationships.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York, NY: Norton.\" id=\"return-footnote-336-1\" href=\"#footnote-336-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> Although, consider what that would mean for previous generations of women who may have defined themselves through their husbands and marriages, or for Eastern cultures today that value interdependence rather than independence.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>Friendships as a source of intimacy<\/strong><\/h3>\n<div id=\"attachment_3927\" style=\"width: 611px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3927\" class=\"wp-image-3927\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/25120322\/friends-graduation-high-school-457950.jpg\" alt=\"Five friends from the same sorority posing in graduation gowns.\" width=\"601\" height=\"450\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-3927\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Many young adulthoods find intimacy through friendships rather than through committed romantic relationships. The increase of young adults attending college has contributed to this trend.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>In our twenties, intimacy needs may be met in friendships rather than with partners.\u00a0This is especially true in the United States today as many young adults postpone making long-term commitments to partners either in marriage or in cohabitation.\u00a0The kinds of friendships shared by women tend to differ from those shared by men (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Difference_theory\">Tannen, 1990<\/a>).\u00a0Friendships between men are more likely to involve sharing information, providing solutions, or focusing on activities rather than discussing problems or emotions.\u00a0Men tend to discuss opinions or factual information or spend time together in an activity of mutual interest.\u00a0Friendships between women are more likely to focus on sharing weaknesses, emotions, or problems.\u00a0Women talk about difficulties they are having in other relationships and express their sadness, frustrations, and joys.\u00a0These differences in approaches could lead to problems when men and women come together.\u00a0She may want to vent about a problem she is having; he may want to provide a solution and move on to some activity.\u00a0But when he offers a solution, she thinks he does not care!\u00a0Effective communication is the key to good relationships.<\/p>\n<p>Many argue that other-sex friendships become more difficult for heterosexual men and women because of the unspoken question about whether the friendships will lead to a romantic involvement. Although common during adolescence and early adulthood, these friendships may be considered threatening once a person is in a long-term relationship or marriage. Consequently, friendships may diminish once a person has a partner or single friends may be replaced with couple friends.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ward, Adrian (2012). Men and Women Can't Be Just Friends. Scientific American. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/men-and-women-cant-be-just-friends\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-336-2\" href=\"#footnote-336-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><del><\/del><\/p>\n<h3><strong>Gaining Adult Status<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>Many of the developmental tasks of early adulthood involve becoming part of the adult world and gaining independence.\u00a0Young adults sometimes complain that they are not treated with respect, especially if they are put in positions of authority over older workers. Consequently, young adults may emphasize their age to gain credibility from those who are even slightly younger.\u00a0\u201cYou\u2019re only 23?\u00a0I\u2019m 27!\u201d a young adult might exclaim. [Note:\u00a0This kind of statement is much less likely to come from someone in their 40s!]<\/p>\n<p>The focus of early adulthood is often on the future.\u00a0Many aspects of life are on hold while people go to school, go to work, and prepare for a brighter future.\u00a0There may be a belief that the hurried life now lived will improve \u2018as soon as I finish school\u2019 or \u2018as soon as I\u00a0get promoted\u2019 or \u2018as soon as the children get a little older.\u2019\u00a0As a result, time may seem to pass rather quickly.\u00a0The day consists of meeting many demands that these tasks bring.\u00a0The incentive for working so hard is that it will all result in a better future.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_9e04b3ee-8371-4c24-9025-830b6a397501\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/9e04b3ee-8371-4c24-9025-830b6a397501?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_9e04b3ee-8371-4c24-9025-830b6a397501\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Levinson\u2019s Theory<\/h2>\n<p>In 1978, Daniel Levinson published a book entitled, <em>The Seasons of a Man\u2019s Life<\/em>\u00a0in which he presented a theory of development in adulthood.\u00a0Levinson\u2019s work was based on in-depth interviews with 40 men between the ages of 35-45. According to Levinson, young adults have an image of the future that motivates them.\u00a0This image is called \u201cthe dream\u201d and for the men interviewed, it was a dream of how their career paths would progress and where they would be at midlife.<span style=\"color: #339966;\">\u00a0<\/span>Dreams are very motivating.\u00a0Dreams of a home bring excitement to couples as they look, save, and fantasize about how life will be.\u00a0Dreams of careers motivate students to continue in school as they fantasize about how much their hard work will pay off.\u00a0Dreams of playgrounds on a summer day inspire would-be parents. A dream is perfect and retains that perfection as long as it remains in the future.\u00a0But as the realization of it moves closer, it may or may not measure up to its image.\u00a0If it does, all is well.\u00a0But if it does not, the image must be replaced or modified.\u00a0And so, in adulthood, plans are made, efforts follow, and plans are reevaluated.\u00a0This creating and recreating characterizes Levinson\u2019s theory.<em>[<\/em>footnote]Levinson, D. (1978). <em>The seasons of a man&#8217;s life<\/em>. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.[\/footnote] (The shift from idealistic dreams to more realistic experiences might remind us of the cognitive development progression from formal to postformal thought in adulthood.)<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Levinson\u2019s stages (at least up to midlife) are presented below (Levinson, 1978).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Levinson, D. (1978) The seasons of a man's life. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.\" id=\"return-footnote-336-3\" href=\"#footnote-336-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0He suggested that periods of transition last about five years and periods of stability last about seven years.\u00a0The ages presented below are based on life in the middle-class several decades ago.\u00a0Think about how these ages and transitions might be different today, or in other cultures, or for women compared to men.<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"tight\">Early adult transition (17-22): Leaving home, leaving family; making first choices about career and education<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"tight\">Entering the adult world (22-28): Committing to an occupation, defining goals, finding intimate relationships<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"tight\">Age 30 transition (28-33): Reevaluating those choices and perhaps making modifications or changing one\u2019s attitude toward love and work<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"tight\">Settling down (33 to 40): Reinvesting in work and family commitments; becoming involved in the community<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"tight\">Midlife transition (40-45): Reevaluating previous commitments; making dramatic changes if necessary; giving expression to previously ignored talents or aspirations; feeling more of a sense of urgency about life and its meaning<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"tight\">Entering middle adulthood (45-50): Committing to new choices made and placing one\u2019s energies into these commitments<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Nearly twenty years after his original research, Levinson interviewed 45 women ages 35-45 and published the book, <em>The seasons of a woman&#8217;s life.<\/em><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Levinson, D. (1996). The seasons of a woman's life. New York, NY: Ballantine Books.\" id=\"return-footnote-336-4\" href=\"#footnote-336-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a> He reported similar patterns with women, although women held a &#8220;split dream&#8221;\u2014an image of the future in both work and family life and a concern with the timing and coordination of the two. Traditionally, by working outside the home, men were seen as taking care of their families. However, for women, working outside the home and taking care of their families were perceived as separate and competing for their time and attention. Hence, one aspect of the women&#8217;s dreams was focused on one goal for several years and then their time and attention shifted towards the other, often resulting in delays in women&#8217;s career dreams.<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_3929\" style=\"width: 597px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3929\" class=\"wp-image-3929\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/25121045\/people-1230872_1920.jpg\" alt=\"Three women around 40 years old, celebrating at a party by blowing confetti.\" width=\"587\" height=\"329\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-3929\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. Women are often torn between caring for their families and advancing their careers outside of the home.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Adulthood, then, is a period of building and rebuilding one\u2019s life.\u00a0Many of the decisions that are made in early adulthood are made before a person has had enough experience to really understand the consequences of such decisions.\u00a0And, perhaps, many of these initial\u00a0decisions are made with one goal in mind &#8211; to be se<span style=\"color: #333333;\">en as an adult.\u00a0As a result, early decisions may be driven more by the expectations of others.\u00a0For example, imagine someone who chose a career path based on other\u2019s advice but now finds that the job is not what was expected.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">The age 30 transition may involve recommitting to the same job, not because it\u2019s stimulating, but because it pays well; or the person may decide to go back to school and change careers.\u00a0Settling down may involve settling down with a new set of expectations.\u00a0As the adult gains status, they may be freer to make more independent choices.\u00a0And sometimes these are very different from those previously made.\u00a0The midlife transition differs from the age 30 transition in<\/span> that the person is more aware of how much time has gone by and how much time is left.\u00a0This brings a sense of urgency and impatience about making changes.\u00a0The future focus of early adulthood gives way to an emphasis on the present in midlife\u2013we will explore this in our next module. Overall, Levinson calls our attention to the dynamic nature of adulthood.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_253628f6-a9e5-4d22-9f23-5936705a9ae2\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/253628f6-a9e5-4d22-9f23-5936705a9ae2?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_253628f6-a9e5-4d22-9f23-5936705a9ae2\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>How well do you think Levinson\u2019s theory translates culturally?\u00a0Do you think that personal desire and a concern with reconciling dreams with the realities of work and family is equally important in all cultures?\u00a0Do you think these considerations are equally important in all social classes, races and ethnic groups?\u00a0Why or why not? How might this model be modified in today&#8217;s economy?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-336\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content on Levinson&#039;s theory. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Margaret Clark-Plaskie for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Laura Overstreet. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\">http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>College friends. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Joseph Bogden. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Pexels. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pexels.com\/photo\/friends-graduation-high-school-457950\/\">https:\/\/www.pexels.com\/photo\/friends-graduation-high-school-457950\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>friends. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Hans. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Pixabay. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/pair-human-photograph-friendship-3852277\/\">https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/pair-human-photograph-friendship-3852277\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>women. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Vilandrra. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Pixabay. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/people-happy-happy-people-joy-1230872\/\">https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/people-happy-happy-people-joy-1230872\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-336-1\">Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York, NY: Norton. <a href=\"#return-footnote-336-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-336-2\">Ward, Adrian (2012). Men and Women Can't Be Just Friends. Scientific American. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/men-and-women-cant-be-just-friends\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/men-and-women-cant-be-just-friends\/<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-336-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-336-3\">Levinson, D. (1978) The seasons of a man's life. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. <a href=\"#return-footnote-336-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-336-4\">Levinson, D. (1996). The seasons of a woman's life. New York, NY: Ballantine Books. <a href=\"#return-footnote-336-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":74,"menu_order":10,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology\",\"author\":\"Laura Overstreet\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content on Levinson\\'s theory\",\"author\":\"Margaret Clark-Plaskie for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"College friends\",\"author\":\"Joseph Bogden\",\"organization\":\"Pexels\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.pexels.com\/photo\/friends-graduation-high-school-457950\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc0\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"friends\",\"author\":\"Hans\",\"organization\":\"Pixabay\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/pair-human-photograph-friendship-3852277\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc0\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"women\",\"author\":\"Vilandrra\",\"organization\":\"Pixabay\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/people-happy-happy-people-joy-1230872\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc0\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"d7c2c9e6-a2fc-43ac-86c3-cb6f5fa706b4, 477a59ec-6c88-4c6d-9e93-bdcbe7dc9578, caa365c6-1719-4688-afec-f670589bdc22","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-336","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":309,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/336","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/74"}],"version-history":[{"count":64,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/336\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":7825,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/336\/revisions\/7825"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/309"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/336\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=336"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=336"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=336"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=336"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}