{"id":4631,"date":"2019-07-11T18:53:15","date_gmt":"2019-07-11T18:53:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=4631"},"modified":"2024-04-30T19:21:33","modified_gmt":"2024-04-30T19:21:33","slug":"behavioral-and-psychological-adjustment","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/chapter\/behavioral-and-psychological-adjustment\/","title":{"raw":"Behavioral and Psychological Adjustment","rendered":"Behavioral and Psychological Adjustment"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain the role that aggression, anxiety, and depression play in adolescent development<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"266\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/candimgs\/McvxyS\/original.jpg\"><img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/candimgs\/McvxyS\/sm_original.jpg\" alt=\"Young teenager holding his fists out ready to punch the photographer.\" width=\"266\" height=\"266\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Early antisocial behavior leads to befriending others who also engage in antisocial behavior, which only perpetuates the downward cycle of aggression and wrongful acts. [Image: Philippe Put][\/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"aggression-and-antisocial-behavior\">Aggression and Antisocial Behavior<\/h2>\r\nSeveral major theories of the development of antisocial behavior treat adolescence as an important period. Patterson\u2019s (1982)[footnote]Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia Press.[\/footnote] <em>early versus late starter model<\/em> of the development of aggressive and antisocial behavior distinguishes youths whose antisocial behavior begins during childhood (early starters) versus adolescence (late starters). According to the theory, early starters are at greater risk for long-term antisocial behavior that extends into adulthood than are late starters. Late starters who become antisocial during adolescence are theorized to experience poor parental monitoring and supervision, aspects of parenting that become more salient during adolescence. Poor monitoring and lack of supervision contribute to increasing involvement with deviant peers, which in turn promotes adolescents\u2019 own antisocial behavior. Late starters desist from antisocial behavior when changes in the environment make other options more appealing.\r\n\r\nSimilarly, Moffitt\u2019s (1993)[footnote]Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life course persistent antisocial behavior: Developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674\u2013701.[\/footnote] <em>life-course persistent versus adolescent-limited model<\/em> distinguishes between antisocial behavior that begins in childhood versus adolescence. Moffitt regards adolescent-limited antisocial behavior as resulting from a \u201cmaturity gap\u201d between adolescents\u2019 dependence on and control by adults and their desire to demonstrate their freedom from adult constraint. However, as they continue to develop, and legitimate adult roles and privileges become available to them, there are fewer incentives to engage in antisocial behavior, leading to desistance in these antisocial behaviors.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nExperiencing violence as an adolescent increases the odds of that adolescent later becoming an abusive adult, although it is not a given. Watch this video to learn more about the effects of abuse and perpetuated violence.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=3ZeMOsXSc6Q\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/DoesHavingAbusiveParentsMeanYoullBecomeOne_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"Does Having Abusive Parents Mean You'll Become One?\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Psychology and MASS Shootings<\/h3>\r\nVirginia Tech, Columbine, Stoneman Douglas High School, Santa Fe High School, Sandy Hook, Aurora, Las Vegas, Orlando\u2014all sites of horrific and tragic mass shootings. Why are they so common? And what led the perpetrators to commit these acts of violence? Several possible factors may work together to create a fertile environment for mass murder in the United States. Most commonly suggested include:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Higher accessibility and ownership of guns. The U.S. has the highest per-capita gun ownership in the world with 120.5 firearms per 100 people; the second highest is Yemen with 52.8 firearms per 100 people.[footnote]Healy, Melissa (August 24, 2015). \"Why the U.S. is No. 1 \u2013 in mass shootings\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 6, 2017.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Mental illness[footnote]Grinberg, Emanuella (January 25, 2016). \"The real mental health issue behind gun violence\". CNN. Retrieved November 7, 2017.[\/footnote] and its treatment (or the lack thereof) with psychiatric drugs. This is controversial.[footnote]Campbell, Holly (December 2, 2015). \"Inside the mind of a mass murderer\". WANE-TV. Retrieved November 9, 2017.[\/footnote] Many of the mass shooters in the U.S. suffered from mental illness, but the estimated number of mental illness cases has not increased as significantly as the number of mass shootings.[footnote]Christensen, Jen (October 5, 2017). \"Why the US has the most mass shootings\". CNN. Retrieved November 6, 2017.[\/footnote] Under 5% of violent behaviors in the U.S. are committed by persons with mental health diagnoses.\u00a0A 2002 report by the U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education found evidence that a majority of school shooters displayed evidence of mental health symptoms, often undiagnosed or untreated. Criminologists Fox and DeLateur note that mental illness is only part of the issue, however, and mass shooters tend to externalize their problems, blaming others, and are unlikely to seek psychiatric help, even if available.[footnote]Peters, Justin (December 19, 2013). \"Everything You Think You Know about Mass Murder Is Wrong\". Slate.[\/footnote] Other scholars have concluded that mass murderers display a common constellation of chronic mental health symptoms, chronic anger or antisocial traits, and a tendency to blame others for problems.[footnote]Ferguson, Christopher J.; Coulson, Mark; Barnett, Jane (January 1, 2011). \"Psychological Profiles of School Shooters: Positive Directions and One Big Wrong Turn\". Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations. 11 (2): 141\u2013158. doi:10.1080\/15332586.2011.581523.[\/footnote] However, they note that attempting to \"profile\" school shooters with such a constellation of traits will likely result in many false positives as many individuals with such a profile do not engage in violent behaviors.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The desire to seek revenge for a long history of being bullied at school. In recent years, citizens calling themselves \"targeted individual\" have cited adult bullying campaigns as a reason for their deadly violence.[footnote]Burgess, Ann Wolbert; Garbarino, Christina; Carlson, Mary I. (2006). \"Pathological teasing and bullying turned deadly: Shooters and suicide\". Victims and Offenders. 1 (1): 1\u201314. doi:10.1080\/15564880500498705.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The widespread chronic gap between people's expectations for themselves and their actual achievement, and individualistic culture.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Desire for fame and notoriety. Also, mass shooters learn from one another through \"media contagion,\" that is, \"the mass media coverage of them and the proliferation of social media sites that tend to glorify the shooters and downplay the victims.\"<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The copycat phenomenon.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Failure of government background checks due to incomplete databases and\/or staff shortages<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nRead this <a href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/health-shots\/2019\/02\/10\/690372199\/school-shooters-whats-their-path-to-violence\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NPR article on school shooters<\/a> to learn more about common threads shared by <em>some<\/em> who commit mass violence.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"anxiety-and-depression\">Anxiety and Depression<\/h2>\r\nDevelopmental models of anxiety and depression also treat adolescence as an important period, especially in terms of the emergence of gender differences in prevalence rates that persist through adulthood (Rudolph, 2009) [footnote]Rudolph, K. D. (2009). The interpersonal context of adolescent depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema &amp; L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 377\u2013418). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis.[\/footnote] Starting in early adolescence, compared with males, females have rates of anxiety that are about twice as high and rates of depression that are 1.5 to 3 times as high (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) [footnote]American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.[\/footnote] Although the rates vary across specific anxiety and depression diagnoses, rates for some disorders are markedly higher in adolescence than in childhood or adulthood. For example, prevalence rates for specific phobias are about 5% in children and 3%\u20135% in adults but 16% in adolescents.\u00a0Additionally, some adolescents sink into <strong>major depression<\/strong>, a deep sadness and hopelessness that disrupts all normal, regular activities. Causes include many factors such as genetics and early childhood experiences that predate adolescence, but puberty may push vulnerable children, especially girls into despair.\r\n\r\nDuring puberty, the rate of major depression more than doubles to an estimated 15%, affecting about one in five girls and one in ten boys. The gender difference occurs for many reasons, biological and cultural (Uddin et al., 2010)\u00a0[footnote]Uddin, M., Koenen, K.C., de los Santos, R., Bakshis, E., Aielle, A.E., &amp; Galea, S. (2010). Gender differences in the genetic and environmental determinants of adolescent depression. Depression and Anxiety, 27(7), 658-666.[\/footnote] Anxiety and depression are particularly concerning because <strong>suicide<\/strong> is one of the leading causes of death during adolescence. Some adolescents experience<strong> suicidal ideation <\/strong>(distressing thoughts about killing oneself) which become most common at about age 15 (Berger, 2019)\u00a0[footnote]Berger, K.S. (2019). Invitation to the Lifespan (4th ed). Worth Publishers, NY.[\/footnote] and can lead to <strong>parasuicide<\/strong>, also called attempted suicide or failed suicide. Suicidal ideation and parasuicide should be taken seriously and serve as a warning that emotions may be overwhelming.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nThis short video emphasizes how suicide is a major health issue and concern for teenagers, and also how it is important for parents, caregivers, teachers, and friends to be open enough to talk about it.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935318&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=axoTuFd51Pk&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-fj25pejz-axoTuFd51Pk\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/TalkingWithKidsAboutSuicide_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"Talking with Kids About Suicide\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nDevelopmental models focus on interpersonal contexts in both childhood and adolescence that foster depression and anxiety (e.g., Rudolph, 2009) [footnote]Rudolph, K. D. (2009). The interpersonal context of adolescent depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema &amp; L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 377\u2013418). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis.[\/footnote] Family adversity, such as abuse and parental psychopathology, during childhood sets the stage for social and behavioral problems during adolescence. Adolescents with such problems generate stress in their relationships (e.g., by resolving conflict poorly and excessively seeking reassurance) and select into more maladaptive social contexts (e.g., \u201cmisery loves company\u201d scenarios in which depressed youths select other depressed youths as friends and then frequently co-ruminate as they discuss their problems, exacerbating negative affect and stress). These processes are intensified for girls compared with boys because girls have more relationship-oriented goals related to intimacy and social approval, leaving them more vulnerable to disruption in these relationships. Anxiety and depression then exacerbate problems in social relationships, which in turn contribute to the stability of anxiety and depression over time.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/7d8f5092-f89b-49c1-9a7b-fa2837ecfcaa\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]major depression:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]feelings of hopelessness, lethargy, and worthlessness that last two weeks or more[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]parasuicide:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]any potentially lethal action against the self that does not result in death. (also called attempted suicide or failed suicide)[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]suicide:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the act of intentionally causing one's own death[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]suicidal ideation:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]thinking about suicide, usually with some serious emotional and intellectual or cognitive overtones[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain the role that aggression, anxiety, and depression play in adolescent development<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"width: 276px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/candimgs\/McvxyS\/original.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/candimgs\/McvxyS\/sm_original.jpg\" alt=\"Young teenager holding his fists out ready to punch the photographer.\" width=\"266\" height=\"266\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Early antisocial behavior leads to befriending others who also engage in antisocial behavior, which only perpetuates the downward cycle of aggression and wrongful acts. [Image: Philippe Put]<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"aggression-and-antisocial-behavior\">Aggression and Antisocial Behavior<\/h2>\n<p>Several major theories of the development of antisocial behavior treat adolescence as an important period. Patterson\u2019s (1982)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia Press.\" id=\"return-footnote-4631-1\" href=\"#footnote-4631-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> <em>early versus late starter model<\/em> of the development of aggressive and antisocial behavior distinguishes youths whose antisocial behavior begins during childhood (early starters) versus adolescence (late starters). According to the theory, early starters are at greater risk for long-term antisocial behavior that extends into adulthood than are late starters. Late starters who become antisocial during adolescence are theorized to experience poor parental monitoring and supervision, aspects of parenting that become more salient during adolescence. Poor monitoring and lack of supervision contribute to increasing involvement with deviant peers, which in turn promotes adolescents\u2019 own antisocial behavior. Late starters desist from antisocial behavior when changes in the environment make other options more appealing.<\/p>\n<p>Similarly, Moffitt\u2019s (1993)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life course persistent antisocial behavior: Developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674\u2013701.\" id=\"return-footnote-4631-2\" href=\"#footnote-4631-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a> <em>life-course persistent versus adolescent-limited model<\/em> distinguishes between antisocial behavior that begins in childhood versus adolescence. Moffitt regards adolescent-limited antisocial behavior as resulting from a \u201cmaturity gap\u201d between adolescents\u2019 dependence on and control by adults and their desire to demonstrate their freedom from adult constraint. However, as they continue to develop, and legitimate adult roles and privileges become available to them, there are fewer incentives to engage in antisocial behavior, leading to desistance in these antisocial behaviors.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Experiencing violence as an adolescent increases the odds of that adolescent later becoming an abusive adult, although it is not a given. Watch this video to learn more about the effects of abuse and perpetuated violence.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Does Having Abusive Parents Mean You&#39;ll Become One?\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/3ZeMOsXSc6Q?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/DoesHavingAbusiveParentsMeanYoullBecomeOne_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;Does Having Abusive Parents Mean You&#8217;ll Become One?&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Psychology and MASS Shootings<\/h3>\n<p>Virginia Tech, Columbine, Stoneman Douglas High School, Santa Fe High School, Sandy Hook, Aurora, Las Vegas, Orlando\u2014all sites of horrific and tragic mass shootings. Why are they so common? And what led the perpetrators to commit these acts of violence? Several possible factors may work together to create a fertile environment for mass murder in the United States. Most commonly suggested include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Higher accessibility and ownership of guns. The U.S. has the highest per-capita gun ownership in the world with 120.5 firearms per 100 people; the second highest is Yemen with 52.8 firearms per 100 people.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Healy, Melissa (August 24, 2015). &quot;Why the U.S. is No. 1 \u2013 in mass shootings&quot;. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 6, 2017.\" id=\"return-footnote-4631-3\" href=\"#footnote-4631-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li>Mental illness<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Grinberg, Emanuella (January 25, 2016). &quot;The real mental health issue behind gun violence&quot;. CNN. Retrieved November 7, 2017.\" id=\"return-footnote-4631-4\" href=\"#footnote-4631-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a> and its treatment (or the lack thereof) with psychiatric drugs. This is controversial.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Campbell, Holly (December 2, 2015). &quot;Inside the mind of a mass murderer&quot;. WANE-TV. Retrieved November 9, 2017.\" id=\"return-footnote-4631-5\" href=\"#footnote-4631-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a> Many of the mass shooters in the U.S. suffered from mental illness, but the estimated number of mental illness cases has not increased as significantly as the number of mass shootings.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Christensen, Jen (October 5, 2017). &quot;Why the US has the most mass shootings&quot;. CNN. Retrieved November 6, 2017.\" id=\"return-footnote-4631-6\" href=\"#footnote-4631-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a> Under 5% of violent behaviors in the U.S. are committed by persons with mental health diagnoses.\u00a0A 2002 report by the U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education found evidence that a majority of school shooters displayed evidence of mental health symptoms, often undiagnosed or untreated. Criminologists Fox and DeLateur note that mental illness is only part of the issue, however, and mass shooters tend to externalize their problems, blaming others, and are unlikely to seek psychiatric help, even if available.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Peters, Justin (December 19, 2013). &quot;Everything You Think You Know about Mass Murder Is Wrong&quot;. Slate.\" id=\"return-footnote-4631-7\" href=\"#footnote-4631-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a> Other scholars have concluded that mass murderers display a common constellation of chronic mental health symptoms, chronic anger or antisocial traits, and a tendency to blame others for problems.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ferguson, Christopher J.; Coulson, Mark; Barnett, Jane (January 1, 2011). &quot;Psychological Profiles of School Shooters: Positive Directions and One Big Wrong Turn&quot;. Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations. 11 (2): 141\u2013158. doi:10.1080\/15332586.2011.581523.\" id=\"return-footnote-4631-8\" href=\"#footnote-4631-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a> However, they note that attempting to &#8220;profile&#8221; school shooters with such a constellation of traits will likely result in many false positives as many individuals with such a profile do not engage in violent behaviors.<\/li>\n<li>The desire to seek revenge for a long history of being bullied at school. In recent years, citizens calling themselves &#8220;targeted individual&#8221; have cited adult bullying campaigns as a reason for their deadly violence.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Burgess, Ann Wolbert; Garbarino, Christina; Carlson, Mary I. (2006). &quot;Pathological teasing and bullying turned deadly: Shooters and suicide&quot;. Victims and Offenders. 1 (1): 1\u201314. doi:10.1080\/15564880500498705.\" id=\"return-footnote-4631-9\" href=\"#footnote-4631-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li>The widespread chronic gap between people&#8217;s expectations for themselves and their actual achievement, and individualistic culture.<\/li>\n<li>Desire for fame and notoriety. Also, mass shooters learn from one another through &#8220;media contagion,&#8221; that is, &#8220;the mass media coverage of them and the proliferation of social media sites that tend to glorify the shooters and downplay the victims.&#8221;<\/li>\n<li>The copycat phenomenon.<\/li>\n<li>Failure of government background checks due to incomplete databases and\/or staff shortages<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Read this <a href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/health-shots\/2019\/02\/10\/690372199\/school-shooters-whats-their-path-to-violence\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NPR article on school shooters<\/a> to learn more about common threads shared by <em>some<\/em> who commit mass violence.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"anxiety-and-depression\">Anxiety and Depression<\/h2>\n<p>Developmental models of anxiety and depression also treat adolescence as an important period, especially in terms of the emergence of gender differences in prevalence rates that persist through adulthood (Rudolph, 2009) <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Rudolph, K. D. (2009). The interpersonal context of adolescent depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema &amp; L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 377\u2013418). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis.\" id=\"return-footnote-4631-10\" href=\"#footnote-4631-10\" aria-label=\"Footnote 10\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[10]<\/sup><\/a> Starting in early adolescence, compared with males, females have rates of anxiety that are about twice as high and rates of depression that are 1.5 to 3 times as high (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.\" id=\"return-footnote-4631-11\" href=\"#footnote-4631-11\" aria-label=\"Footnote 11\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[11]<\/sup><\/a> Although the rates vary across specific anxiety and depression diagnoses, rates for some disorders are markedly higher in adolescence than in childhood or adulthood. For example, prevalence rates for specific phobias are about 5% in children and 3%\u20135% in adults but 16% in adolescents.\u00a0Additionally, some adolescents sink into <strong>major depression<\/strong>, a deep sadness and hopelessness that disrupts all normal, regular activities. Causes include many factors such as genetics and early childhood experiences that predate adolescence, but puberty may push vulnerable children, especially girls into despair.<\/p>\n<p>During puberty, the rate of major depression more than doubles to an estimated 15%, affecting about one in five girls and one in ten boys. The gender difference occurs for many reasons, biological and cultural (Uddin et al., 2010)\u00a0<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Uddin, M., Koenen, K.C., de los Santos, R., Bakshis, E., Aielle, A.E., &amp; Galea, S. (2010). Gender differences in the genetic and environmental determinants of adolescent depression. Depression and Anxiety, 27(7), 658-666.\" id=\"return-footnote-4631-12\" href=\"#footnote-4631-12\" aria-label=\"Footnote 12\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[12]<\/sup><\/a> Anxiety and depression are particularly concerning because <strong>suicide<\/strong> is one of the leading causes of death during adolescence. Some adolescents experience<strong> suicidal ideation <\/strong>(distressing thoughts about killing oneself) which become most common at about age 15 (Berger, 2019)\u00a0<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Berger, K.S. (2019). Invitation to the Lifespan (4th ed). Worth Publishers, NY.\" id=\"return-footnote-4631-13\" href=\"#footnote-4631-13\" aria-label=\"Footnote 13\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[13]<\/sup><\/a> and can lead to <strong>parasuicide<\/strong>, also called attempted suicide or failed suicide. Suicidal ideation and parasuicide should be taken seriously and serve as a warning that emotions may be overwhelming.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>This short video emphasizes how suicide is a major health issue and concern for teenagers, and also how it is important for parents, caregivers, teachers, and friends to be open enough to talk about it.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935318&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=axoTuFd51Pk&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-fj25pejz-axoTuFd51Pk\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Lifespan+Development\/Transcriptions\/TalkingWithKidsAboutSuicide_transcript.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;Talking with Kids About Suicide&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Developmental models focus on interpersonal contexts in both childhood and adolescence that foster depression and anxiety (e.g., Rudolph, 2009) <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Rudolph, K. D. (2009). The interpersonal context of adolescent depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema &amp; L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 377\u2013418). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis.\" id=\"return-footnote-4631-14\" href=\"#footnote-4631-14\" aria-label=\"Footnote 14\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[14]<\/sup><\/a> Family adversity, such as abuse and parental psychopathology, during childhood sets the stage for social and behavioral problems during adolescence. Adolescents with such problems generate stress in their relationships (e.g., by resolving conflict poorly and excessively seeking reassurance) and select into more maladaptive social contexts (e.g., \u201cmisery loves company\u201d scenarios in which depressed youths select other depressed youths as friends and then frequently co-ruminate as they discuss their problems, exacerbating negative affect and stress). These processes are intensified for girls compared with boys because girls have more relationship-oriented goals related to intimacy and social approval, leaving them more vulnerable to disruption in these relationships. Anxiety and depression then exacerbate problems in social relationships, which in turn contribute to the stability of anxiety and depression over time.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_7d8f5092-f89b-49c1-9a7b-fa2837ecfcaa\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/7d8f5092-f89b-49c1-9a7b-fa2837ecfcaa?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_7d8f5092-f89b-49c1-9a7b-fa2837ecfcaa\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>major depression:<\/dt>\n<dd>feelings of hopelessness, lethargy, and worthlessness that last two weeks or more<\/dd>\n<dt>parasuicide:<\/dt>\n<dd>any potentially lethal action against the self that does not result in death. (also called attempted suicide or failed suicide)<\/dd>\n<dt>suicide:<\/dt>\n<dd>the act of intentionally causing one&#8217;s own death<\/dd>\n<dt>suicidal ideation:<\/dt>\n<dd>thinking about suicide, usually with some serious emotional and intellectual or cognitive overtones<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-4631\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Tera Jones for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Adolescent Development . <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Jennifer Lansford. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/adolescent-development?r=LDE2MjU3\">http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/adolescent-development?r=LDE2MjU3<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: The Noba Project. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>School Shooting. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/School_shooting\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/School_shooting<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Mass Shootings in the United States. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Talking with Kids About Suicide. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: NationwideChildrens. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=axoTuFd51Pk\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=axoTuFd51Pk<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Does Having Abusive Parents Mean You&#039;ll Become One?. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: SciShow Psych. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=3ZeMOsXSc6Q\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=3ZeMOsXSc6Q<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-4631-1\">Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia Press. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4631-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4631-2\">Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life course persistent antisocial behavior: Developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674\u2013701. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4631-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4631-3\">Healy, Melissa (August 24, 2015). \"Why the U.S. is No. 1 \u2013 in mass shootings\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 6, 2017. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4631-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4631-4\">Grinberg, Emanuella (January 25, 2016). \"The real mental health issue behind gun violence\". CNN. Retrieved November 7, 2017. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4631-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4631-5\">Campbell, Holly (December 2, 2015). \"Inside the mind of a mass murderer\". WANE-TV. Retrieved November 9, 2017. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4631-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4631-6\">Christensen, Jen (October 5, 2017). \"Why the US has the most mass shootings\". CNN. Retrieved November 6, 2017. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4631-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4631-7\">Peters, Justin (December 19, 2013). \"Everything You Think You Know about Mass Murder Is Wrong\". Slate. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4631-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4631-8\">Ferguson, Christopher J.; Coulson, Mark; Barnett, Jane (January 1, 2011). \"Psychological Profiles of School Shooters: Positive Directions and One Big Wrong Turn\". Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations. 11 (2): 141\u2013158. doi:10.1080\/15332586.2011.581523. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4631-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4631-9\">Burgess, Ann Wolbert; Garbarino, Christina; Carlson, Mary I. (2006). \"Pathological teasing and bullying turned deadly: Shooters and suicide\". Victims and Offenders. 1 (1): 1\u201314. doi:10.1080\/15564880500498705. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4631-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4631-10\">Rudolph, K. D. (2009). The interpersonal context of adolescent depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema &amp; L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 377\u2013418). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4631-10\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 10\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4631-11\">American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4631-11\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 11\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4631-12\">Uddin, M., Koenen, K.C., de los Santos, R., Bakshis, E., Aielle, A.E., &amp; Galea, S. (2010). Gender differences in the genetic and environmental determinants of adolescent depression. Depression and Anxiety, 27(7), 658-666. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4631-12\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 12\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4631-13\">Berger, K.S. (2019). Invitation to the Lifespan (4th ed). Worth Publishers, NY. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4631-13\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 13\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4631-14\">Rudolph, K. D. (2009). The interpersonal context of adolescent depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema &amp; L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 377\u2013418). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4631-14\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 14\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":13,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Adolescent Development \",\"author\":\"Jennifer Lansford\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/adolescent-development?r=LDE2MjU3\",\"project\":\"The Noba Project\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Tera Jones for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Talking with Kids About Suicide\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"NationwideChildrens\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=axoTuFd51Pk\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"School Shooting\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/School_shooting\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Mass Shootings in the United States\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Does Having Abusive Parents Mean You\\'ll Become One?\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"SciShow Psych\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=3ZeMOsXSc6Q\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"805b0661-f418-438f-a23f-fc62b540333d, 6d5bf8eb-d4dc-4174-9cdc-1e674c8fd68a","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-4631","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":308,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4631","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":26,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4631\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":7812,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4631\/revisions\/7812"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/308"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4631\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4631"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=4631"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=4631"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=4631"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}