{"id":210,"date":"2019-03-19T17:42:44","date_gmt":"2019-03-19T17:42:44","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-organizationalbehavior\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=210"},"modified":"2024-04-24T22:49:40","modified_gmt":"2024-04-24T22:49:40","slug":"early-management-theories","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-organizationalbehavior\/chapter\/early-management-theories\/","title":{"raw":"Early Management Theories","rendered":"Early Management Theories"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Differentiate among early team management theories<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nOnce you have a group of people (or a team of people), they will need to achieve goals and objectives.\u00a0We know how the group came together, how they will function effectively and how they will become a team. So let\u2019s talk now about how the group will be managed.\r\n\r\nManagement of people didn\u2019t really become a subject of scientific study until the turn of the twentieth century, when researchers began to understand that there was more to the motivation and hard work of an employee than just a paycheck. Before that .\u00a0.\u00a0. well, managing people wasn\u2019t exactly an art.\r\n\r\nDuring the Industrial Revolution at the turn of the 19th century, the United States entered a phase where significant changes occurred in the areas of transportation, agriculture and manufacturing, allowing us to produce goods quickly and efficiently. James Watt invented the steam engine, which shortened transportation times and allowed us to move goods faster. Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, opening the door to quicker, more efficient cotton harvesting.\r\n\r\nBut even as Francis Cabot Lowell invented his water-powered mill, it wasn\u2019t to lessen the burden of his laborers. Women would work in his plant 12 to 14 hours a day, and they were paid better than ladies at other textile manufacturers .\u00a0.\u00a0. for a while. But when Lowell wanted to increase his profits and meet customer demands, he cut his employees\u2019 pay and lengthened their hours. Because of that, trade unions formed, strikes occurred and the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association was created.\r\n\r\nWe were a long way from the \u201ctake care of your employees and they\u2019ll take care of you\u201d notion.\r\n\r\nThere were still management problems, though, and they presented problems for these new factory owners. Large numbers of people had to be managed, trained, controlled, and motivated. Materials and tools needed to be supplied. Managers looked to handle these issues scientifically.\r\n<h2>Scientific Management<\/h2>\r\n<img class=\"alignright wp-image-575\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1972\/2017\/07\/21222440\/401px-Frederick_Winslow_Taylor_crop-201x300.jpg\" alt=\"Frederick Winslow Taylor\" width=\"250\" height=\"374\" \/>Frederick Winslow Taylor was an engineer for Bethlehem Steel in 1889, when he decided to analyze the issue of soldiering, which is when workers are deliberately working under capacity.\r\n\r\nHe observed workers unloading iron off of rail cars and loading steel onto them. Taylor studied the movements, tools, and processes of the workers and determined that, while they were currently loading about 12.5 tons a day, they were clearly capable of loading 47.5 tons a day. He recommended that workers be provided incentives in the form of wage increases to meet new loading goals. These recommendations, when followed, led to increased production for Bethlehem Steel.\r\n\r\nThe process that Taylor laid out was a template for other organizations:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Each task should be studied scientifically to determine the best way to perform it.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Workers should be carefully selected and trained to perform the tasks.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Managers and workers should cooperate to ensure efficient production.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Managers should plan, and workers should be responsible for implementing those plans.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<h2>Bureaucratic Management Approach<\/h2>\r\nRather than concentrate on increasing worker productivity and efficiency, the administrative approach to scientific management focused on helping managers coordinate organizational duties.\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignright wp-image-590\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1972\/2017\/06\/26175450\/Max_Weber_1894-225x300.jpg\" alt=\"Max Weber\" width=\"250\" height=\"334\" \/>Max Weber developed a bureaucratic approach to management. A German citizen, Weber was interested in industrial capitalism, particularly how it was successful in some areas and not in others. Weber traveled to the United States to observe industrial capitalism, and determined that the U.S. used professional managers, business and economic relationships, whereas in Germany people were given positions of authority based on social standings and connections, and businesses were highly linked to family.\r\n\r\nIn order to help eliminate the practice of social privilege and favoritism prevalent in family-owned businesses, Weber proposed the bureaucratic approach. Bureaucracies have a negative connotation today, but in the true definition of the word bureaucracies are impersonal structures based on clear authority, responsibility, formal procedures and separation of management and ownership.\r\n\r\nIn his approach, Weber proposed:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Hierarchal management structure.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Division of labor.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Formal selection process for new employees.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Career orientation.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Formal rules and regulations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Impersonality.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nWeber didn\u2019t anticipate the problems that would come from his approach (division of labor leading to boredom, formal rules leading to \u201cred tape\u201d), his bureaucratic method is in practice among many organizations today, and his idea that hiring and promotion should be based on capability and not social standing is written into US labor laws.\r\n<h2>Administrative Management Approach<\/h2>\r\n<img class=\"alignright wp-image-593\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1972\/2017\/06\/26175839\/Henri_Fayol_1900-233x300.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph of Henri Fayol\" width=\"250\" height=\"323\" \/>In his administrative management approach, theorist Henri Fayol proposed five basic management functions that are still an important part of management practice today.\u00a0In his 1916 book General and Industrial Management, he talked about those functions:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Foresight:<\/strong> an organizational plan for the future.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Organization:<\/strong> implementation of the plan.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Command:<\/strong> select and lead workers.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Coordinate:<\/strong> make sure all activities are coordinated and helping to reach goal.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Control:<\/strong> ensure activities are going as planned.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nFayol came to some of these basic concepts when he witnessed the shutdown of a mine. A horse had broken its leg, and the mine had to be shut down because no one had the authority to purchase a new one. Seeing this as a failure of management to provide the right resources, he began his studies of management structures.\r\n\r\nFayol\u2019s studies also produced fourteen principles that could guide management behavior, but felt that they weren\u2019t rigid or exhaustive.\u00a0Five of those principles still exist in current management theory and practice:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Unity of command.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Fairness and equity.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Discipline and order.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Scalar chain of command.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Teamwork and subordination of individual interests.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nWeber\u2019s bureaucracy approach informs most organizations today and Fayol\u2019s approach helps us understand the basics of management no matter what the industry or situation. Now let\u2019s look at some studies and research that bring in the human relations approach.\r\n<h2>Humanistic Viewpoint<\/h2>\r\n<img class=\"wp-image-603 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1972\/2017\/06\/26180612\/Mary_Parker_Follett_1868-1933.jpg\" alt=\"A headshot of Mary Parker Follett\" width=\"250\" height=\"367\" \/>Mary Parker Follett\u2019s teachings, many of which were published as articles in well-known women\u2019s magazines, were popular with businesspeople during her lifetime. But she was virtually ignored by the male-dominated academic establishment, even though she attended Radcliffe University and Yale and was asked to address the London School of Economics. In recent years her writings have been \u201crediscovered\u201d by American management academics, and she is now considered the \u201cMother of Modern Management.\u201d\r\n\r\nFollett developed many concepts that she applied to business and management, including the following:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>A better understanding of lateral processes within organizational hierarchies. These concepts were applied by DuPont Chemical Company in the 1920s in the first matrix-style organization. A matrix organizational structure uses a grid rather than a pyramidal system to illustrate reporting paths. An individual may report both to a functional manager (such as sales or finance) and to a product manager.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The importance of informal processes within organizations. This is related to the idea of authority deriving from expertise rather than position or status. For example, an informal group may form in an organization (during or outside of official work hours) to socialize, form a union, or discuss work processes without management overhearing.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Non-coercive power sharing, which she called\u00a0<strong>integration<\/strong>, to describe how power operates in an effective organization. She wrote about the\u00a0<strong>\u201cgroup principle\u201d<\/strong>\u00a0that characterized the whole of the organization, describing how workers and managers have equal importance and make equal contributions.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Coining the term \u201cwin-win\u201d to describe cooperation between managers and workers. She also talked about\u00a0<strong>empowerment<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong>facilitation<\/strong>\u00a0rather than control.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Promoting conflict resolution in a group based on constructive consultation of equals rather than compromise, submission, or struggle. This is known as the\u00a0<strong>constructive conflict<\/strong>\u00a0concept.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nFollett devoted her life\u2019s work to the idea that social cooperation is better than individual competition. In her 1924 book\u00a0<em>Creative Experience<\/em>, Follett wrote \u201cLabor and [management] can never be reconciled as long as labor persists in thinking that there is a [management] point of view and [management] thinks there is a labor point of view. These are imaginary wholes which must be broken up before [management] and labor can cooperate.\u201d\r\n\r\nWe\u2019ve talked before about Elton Mayo, Fritz Roethlisberger, and the Hawthorne Studies.\u00a0They visited the Western Electric Hawthorne Works to determine the affects of lighting on productivity. As we know, they learned much more about the workers than just whether they did better in a well-lit atmosphere. They learned that their observation alone increased worker productivity, that workers value their social relationships and rely on group norms to restrict their productivity output.\r\n\r\nThere were several different flaws in the Hawthorne studies and their methodologies, but it spurred on studies by Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor, Frederick Herzberg and David McClelland, all approaching their research from the source of motivation of the worker and how that can be manipulated to increase productivity.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Practice Question<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/ec1663d6-7d6e-4d5f-92ed-ed9908bb10c1\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Differentiate among early team management theories<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>Once you have a group of people (or a team of people), they will need to achieve goals and objectives.\u00a0We know how the group came together, how they will function effectively and how they will become a team. So let\u2019s talk now about how the group will be managed.<\/p>\n<p>Management of people didn\u2019t really become a subject of scientific study until the turn of the twentieth century, when researchers began to understand that there was more to the motivation and hard work of an employee than just a paycheck. Before that .\u00a0.\u00a0. well, managing people wasn\u2019t exactly an art.<\/p>\n<p>During the Industrial Revolution at the turn of the 19th century, the United States entered a phase where significant changes occurred in the areas of transportation, agriculture and manufacturing, allowing us to produce goods quickly and efficiently. James Watt invented the steam engine, which shortened transportation times and allowed us to move goods faster. Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, opening the door to quicker, more efficient cotton harvesting.<\/p>\n<p>But even as Francis Cabot Lowell invented his water-powered mill, it wasn\u2019t to lessen the burden of his laborers. Women would work in his plant 12 to 14 hours a day, and they were paid better than ladies at other textile manufacturers .\u00a0.\u00a0. for a while. But when Lowell wanted to increase his profits and meet customer demands, he cut his employees\u2019 pay and lengthened their hours. Because of that, trade unions formed, strikes occurred and the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association was created.<\/p>\n<p>We were a long way from the \u201ctake care of your employees and they\u2019ll take care of you\u201d notion.<\/p>\n<p>There were still management problems, though, and they presented problems for these new factory owners. Large numbers of people had to be managed, trained, controlled, and motivated. Materials and tools needed to be supplied. Managers looked to handle these issues scientifically.<\/p>\n<h2>Scientific Management<\/h2>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright wp-image-575\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1972\/2017\/07\/21222440\/401px-Frederick_Winslow_Taylor_crop-201x300.jpg\" alt=\"Frederick Winslow Taylor\" width=\"250\" height=\"374\" \/>Frederick Winslow Taylor was an engineer for Bethlehem Steel in 1889, when he decided to analyze the issue of soldiering, which is when workers are deliberately working under capacity.<\/p>\n<p>He observed workers unloading iron off of rail cars and loading steel onto them. Taylor studied the movements, tools, and processes of the workers and determined that, while they were currently loading about 12.5 tons a day, they were clearly capable of loading 47.5 tons a day. He recommended that workers be provided incentives in the form of wage increases to meet new loading goals. These recommendations, when followed, led to increased production for Bethlehem Steel.<\/p>\n<p>The process that Taylor laid out was a template for other organizations:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Each task should be studied scientifically to determine the best way to perform it.<\/li>\n<li>Workers should be carefully selected and trained to perform the tasks.<\/li>\n<li>Managers and workers should cooperate to ensure efficient production.<\/li>\n<li>Managers should plan, and workers should be responsible for implementing those plans.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h2>Bureaucratic Management Approach<\/h2>\n<p>Rather than concentrate on increasing worker productivity and efficiency, the administrative approach to scientific management focused on helping managers coordinate organizational duties.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright wp-image-590\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1972\/2017\/06\/26175450\/Max_Weber_1894-225x300.jpg\" alt=\"Max Weber\" width=\"250\" height=\"334\" \/>Max Weber developed a bureaucratic approach to management. A German citizen, Weber was interested in industrial capitalism, particularly how it was successful in some areas and not in others. Weber traveled to the United States to observe industrial capitalism, and determined that the U.S. used professional managers, business and economic relationships, whereas in Germany people were given positions of authority based on social standings and connections, and businesses were highly linked to family.<\/p>\n<p>In order to help eliminate the practice of social privilege and favoritism prevalent in family-owned businesses, Weber proposed the bureaucratic approach. Bureaucracies have a negative connotation today, but in the true definition of the word bureaucracies are impersonal structures based on clear authority, responsibility, formal procedures and separation of management and ownership.<\/p>\n<p>In his approach, Weber proposed:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Hierarchal management structure.<\/li>\n<li>Division of labor.<\/li>\n<li>Formal selection process for new employees.<\/li>\n<li>Career orientation.<\/li>\n<li>Formal rules and regulations.<\/li>\n<li>Impersonality.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Weber didn\u2019t anticipate the problems that would come from his approach (division of labor leading to boredom, formal rules leading to \u201cred tape\u201d), his bureaucratic method is in practice among many organizations today, and his idea that hiring and promotion should be based on capability and not social standing is written into US labor laws.<\/p>\n<h2>Administrative Management Approach<\/h2>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright wp-image-593\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1972\/2017\/06\/26175839\/Henri_Fayol_1900-233x300.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph of Henri Fayol\" width=\"250\" height=\"323\" \/>In his administrative management approach, theorist Henri Fayol proposed five basic management functions that are still an important part of management practice today.\u00a0In his 1916 book General and Industrial Management, he talked about those functions:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Foresight:<\/strong> an organizational plan for the future.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Organization:<\/strong> implementation of the plan.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Command:<\/strong> select and lead workers.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Coordinate:<\/strong> make sure all activities are coordinated and helping to reach goal.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Control:<\/strong> ensure activities are going as planned.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Fayol came to some of these basic concepts when he witnessed the shutdown of a mine. A horse had broken its leg, and the mine had to be shut down because no one had the authority to purchase a new one. Seeing this as a failure of management to provide the right resources, he began his studies of management structures.<\/p>\n<p>Fayol\u2019s studies also produced fourteen principles that could guide management behavior, but felt that they weren\u2019t rigid or exhaustive.\u00a0Five of those principles still exist in current management theory and practice:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Unity of command.<\/li>\n<li>Fairness and equity.<\/li>\n<li>Discipline and order.<\/li>\n<li>Scalar chain of command.<\/li>\n<li>Teamwork and subordination of individual interests.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Weber\u2019s bureaucracy approach informs most organizations today and Fayol\u2019s approach helps us understand the basics of management no matter what the industry or situation. Now let\u2019s look at some studies and research that bring in the human relations approach.<\/p>\n<h2>Humanistic Viewpoint<\/h2>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-603 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1972\/2017\/06\/26180612\/Mary_Parker_Follett_1868-1933.jpg\" alt=\"A headshot of Mary Parker Follett\" width=\"250\" height=\"367\" \/>Mary Parker Follett\u2019s teachings, many of which were published as articles in well-known women\u2019s magazines, were popular with businesspeople during her lifetime. But she was virtually ignored by the male-dominated academic establishment, even though she attended Radcliffe University and Yale and was asked to address the London School of Economics. In recent years her writings have been \u201crediscovered\u201d by American management academics, and she is now considered the \u201cMother of Modern Management.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Follett developed many concepts that she applied to business and management, including the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>A better understanding of lateral processes within organizational hierarchies. These concepts were applied by DuPont Chemical Company in the 1920s in the first matrix-style organization. A matrix organizational structure uses a grid rather than a pyramidal system to illustrate reporting paths. An individual may report both to a functional manager (such as sales or finance) and to a product manager.<\/li>\n<li>The importance of informal processes within organizations. This is related to the idea of authority deriving from expertise rather than position or status. For example, an informal group may form in an organization (during or outside of official work hours) to socialize, form a union, or discuss work processes without management overhearing.<\/li>\n<li>Non-coercive power sharing, which she called\u00a0<strong>integration<\/strong>, to describe how power operates in an effective organization. She wrote about the\u00a0<strong>\u201cgroup principle\u201d<\/strong>\u00a0that characterized the whole of the organization, describing how workers and managers have equal importance and make equal contributions.<\/li>\n<li>Coining the term \u201cwin-win\u201d to describe cooperation between managers and workers. She also talked about\u00a0<strong>empowerment<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong>facilitation<\/strong>\u00a0rather than control.<\/li>\n<li>Promoting conflict resolution in a group based on constructive consultation of equals rather than compromise, submission, or struggle. This is known as the\u00a0<strong>constructive conflict<\/strong>\u00a0concept.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Follett devoted her life\u2019s work to the idea that social cooperation is better than individual competition. In her 1924 book\u00a0<em>Creative Experience<\/em>, Follett wrote \u201cLabor and [management] can never be reconciled as long as labor persists in thinking that there is a [management] point of view and [management] thinks there is a labor point of view. These are imaginary wholes which must be broken up before [management] and labor can cooperate.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>We\u2019ve talked before about Elton Mayo, Fritz Roethlisberger, and the Hawthorne Studies.\u00a0They visited the Western Electric Hawthorne Works to determine the affects of lighting on productivity. As we know, they learned much more about the workers than just whether they did better in a well-lit atmosphere. They learned that their observation alone increased worker productivity, that workers value their social relationships and rely on group norms to restrict their productivity output.<\/p>\n<p>There were several different flaws in the Hawthorne studies and their methodologies, but it spurred on studies by Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor, Frederick Herzberg and David McClelland, all approaching their research from the source of motivation of the worker and how that can be manipulated to increase productivity.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Practice Question<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_ec1663d6-7d6e-4d5f-92ed-ed9908bb10c1\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/ec1663d6-7d6e-4d5f-92ed-ed9908bb10c1?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_ec1663d6-7d6e-4d5f-92ed-ed9908bb10c1\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-210\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Early Management Theories. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Freedom Learning Group. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Mary Parker Follett (1868u20131933). <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Unknown. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Mary_Parker_Follett_(1868-1933).jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Mary_Parker_Follett_(1868-1933).jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Frederick Winslow Taylor. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Unknown. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Frederick_Winslow_Taylor_crop.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Frederick_Winslow_Taylor_crop.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Max Weber 1894. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Unknown. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Max_Weber_1894.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Max_Weber_1894.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Henry Fayol, 1900. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Unknown. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Henri_Fayol,_1900.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Henri_Fayol,_1900.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t 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