{"id":907,"date":"2020-09-15T15:51:02","date_gmt":"2020-09-15T15:51:02","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-publicspeaking\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=907"},"modified":"2020-11-24T15:27:59","modified_gmt":"2020-11-24T15:27:59","slug":"public-speaking-medieval-to-modern","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-publicspeaking\/chapter\/public-speaking-medieval-to-modern\/","title":{"raw":"Public Speaking, Medieval to Modern","rendered":"Public Speaking, Medieval to Modern"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\nRecognize the variety of approaches to rhetoric and oratory in different times and cultures.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nAs the Roman Empire fell and the historical period known as the Middle Ages (c. 400\u20131400) dominated, rhetoric fell from grace. It was no longer a valued and honored skill but instead was thought of as a pagan art. This view coincided with the Christian domination of the period, as \u201cChristians believed that the rhetorical ideas formulated by the pagans of classical Greece and Rome should not be studied and that possession of Christian truth was accompanied by an automatic ability to communicate the truth effectively.\u201d [footnote]Foss, Sonja K., et al. <i>Contemporary Perspectives on Rhetoric<\/i>. Waveland Press, 2014, p. 8[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nFortunately for us, the teachings of classical rhetoric were not lost forever: Even as the teachings of Aristotle and other classical rhetoricians were being expunged in Europe, they were finding new resonance in the Islamic world.\r\n<h3>Rhetoric in the Middle East<\/h3>\r\nAbu Nasr <strong>Al-Farabi<\/strong> (Persian: \u0627\u0628\u0648 \u0646\u0635\u0631 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0628\u0646 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0627\u0628\u06cc\u200e, c. 872\u2013951) was a renowned, early Islamic philosopher and jurist who wrote in the fields of political philosophy, metaphysics, ethics, and logic. He was also a scientist, cosmologist, mathematician, and music scholar.\r\n\r\nIn Islamic philosophical tradition, he was often called \"the Second Teacher,\" following Aristotle who was known as \"the First Teacher.\"[footnote]L\u00f3pez-Farjeat, Luis Xavier. \"Al-Farabi's Psychology and Epistemology.\"\u00a0<em>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em>, ed. by Edward N. Zalta, 2016.[\/footnote] He is credited with preserving the original Greek texts during the Middle Ages because of his commentaries and treatises, and influencing many prominent philosophers. Through his works, he became well-known in the West as well as the East. Al-Farabi had a great influence on <strong>Maimonides<\/strong>, the most important Jewish thinker of the middle ages.\r\n\r\nIbn Rushd (Full name in Arabic: \u0623\u0628\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0644\u064a\u062f \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0627\u0628\u0646 \u0627\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0627\u0628\u0646 \u0631\u0634\u062f\u200e, c. 1126\u20131198), often Latinized as <strong>Averro\u00ebs<\/strong>, was a Muslim Andalusian polymath and jurist who wrote about many subjects, including philosophy, theology, medicine, astronomy, physics, psychology, mathematics, Islamic jurisprudence and law, and linguistics. Averro\u00ebs is best known for his comprehensive commentaries on Aristotle, as well as his contributions to Islamic theology, including the argument laid out in Fasl al-Maqal (\"The Decisive Treatise,\" c. 1178) that philosophical thought was not incompatible with Islam. Mark Schaub has argued that \"Averro\u00ebs and his fellow Islamic thinkers served as a kind of 'filter' through which Aristotelian discussions of logic, theology, and also rhetoric reached the West.\"[footnote]Schaub, Mark. \"Rhetorical studies in America: The place of Averro\u00ebs and the Medieval Arab commentators.\" <em>Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics<\/em> 16 (1996): 233\u2013253.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nIn the Islamic world, the notion of rhetoric intersected with two concepts in Arabic: <em>fann al-khat\u0101ba<\/em>, or the art of oratory, and <em>ilm al-bal\u0101gha<\/em>, the study of eloquence.[footnote]Halld\u00e9n, Philip. \"What is Arab Islamic Rhetoric? Rethinking the history of Muslim oratory art and homiletics.\" International Journal of Middle East Studies 37.1 (2005): 19\u201338, p. 20.[\/footnote] The science of <em>al-bal\u0101gha<\/em> can further be broken down inline with the categories offered by Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Qazwini (d. 1338):\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><em>'Ilm al-ma'ani<\/em> (the science of meanings [making your language appropriate to the audience and the situation])<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><em>'Ilm al-bayan<\/em> (the science of clarity [of language])<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><em>'Ilm al-badi'<\/em> (the science of ornamentation) (Halld\u00e9n, p. 21)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nEven if these words are unfamiliar to you, you'll certainly learn a lot about these three areas in the course of this public speaking class! Whether reflecting on how to get your meaning across to a specific audience, deciding how to express your ideas in the clearest way, or constructing elegant, compelling sentences with effective tropes and rhythms, modern understandings of effective speaking still carry echoes of its early history\u2014whether in Greece, Rome, or the Middle East. Each of these cultures, in turn, was influenced by the teachings of earlier civilizations in the region, such as Sumeria or ancient Egypt.\r\n<h3>The <em>Jeli<\/em>\u00a0or <em>Griot\u00a0<\/em>Tradition in the Mali Empire<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_939\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"240\"]<img class=\"wp-image-939 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5348\/2020\/09\/16202846\/main-image-240x300.jpg\" alt=\"Wooden sculpture of two figures seated at a balafon instrument, which looks like a xylophone or a marimba.\" width=\"240\" height=\"300\" \/> Pair of Balafon Players, 18th\u2013early 19th century, Dogon peoples. \"This work may... refer to a series of events related in the epic narratives surrounding the formation of the Mali empire (ca. 1230)... According to these oral histories, a balafon player had a central role in the defeat of the Soso kingdom and its invincible ruler Soumaworo. In a ruse, Mali's ruler Sundiata Keita sent his sister Sologon and the court musician Bala Fass\u00e9k\u00e9 Kouyat\u00e9 to Soso as spies to discover the source of Soumaworo's power. Through Sologon's beauty and Kouyat\u00e9's masterful balafon playing, they learned Soumaworo's secret and Keita defeated him on the battlefield.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/312346\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Source: The Met Museum<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Mali Empire (Manding: <em>Nyeni<\/em> or <em>Niani<\/em>; also historically referred to as the <em>Manden Kurufaba<\/em>, sometimes shortened to <em>Manden<\/em>) was an empire in West Africa from around c. 1235 to 1670.\u00a0The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita, whose exploits remain celebrated in Mali today. In the <em>Epic of Sundiata,<\/em>\u00a0Sundiata Keita has a trusted advisor named Balla Fass\u00e9k\u00e9.\u00a0Fass\u00e9k\u00e9 has an important role in\u00a0Sundiata Keita's royal court: he is a\u00a0<em>griot.\u00a0<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">In Mand\u00e9 society, the <\/span><em style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"><strong>jeli<\/strong>, <\/em><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">or <\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"><em>griot<\/em><\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">,\u00a0was an historian, advisor, arbitrator, praise singer, and storyteller. They essentially served as history books, preserving ancient stories and traditions through song. Their tradition was passed down through generations. The name <\/span><em style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">jeli<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"> means \"blood\" in Manika language. They were believed to have deep connections to spiritual, social, or political powers. In his account of a visit to the Mali royal court in c. 1352,\u00a0Abdalla Ibn Battuta describes the performance of the <em>griots<\/em><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">:<\/span>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">It was mentioned to me that their poetry is a kind of preaching. In it they tell the sultan that this <em>banbi<\/em> [throne] on which he is, such and such of the kings of Mali sat on it, and such and such were the good deeds of one, such and such another\u2019s. \u201cSo do good, that good will be recounted after you.\"[footnote]Batuta, Ibn, Said Hamdun, and Noel Quinton King.\u00a0<i>Ibn Battuta in Black Africa<\/i>. Markus Wiener Pub, 2005. AQI Campbell, Kermit E. \"Rhetoric from the Ruins of African Antiquity.\"\u00a0<i>Rhetorica<\/i>\u00a024.3 (2006): 255\u2013274, pp. 271\u2013272.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_916\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"size-medium wp-image-916\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5348\/2020\/09\/15180721\/Papa1999.b-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"A man in traditional West African clothing sitting on a cushion and playing a string instrument\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" \/> Mandinka <em>Griot<\/em> Al-Haji Papa Bunka Susso performing songs from the oral tradition of the Gambia on the kora.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nFrom this story, we see an important function of the\u00a0<em>griot<\/em>: to speak truth to power as a representative of the will of the people.[footnote]Campbell p. 272[\/footnote][footnote]Hale, Thomas A. <i>Griots and Griottes Masters of Words and Music<\/i>. Indiana University Press, 2007, p. 79.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nThe\u00a0<em>griot<\/em>\u00a0tradition has continued, expanded, and evolved over the centuries and remains a thriving profession in West Africa and in the African diaspora more generally.\r\n<h3>Public Speaking in the Aztec Empire<\/h3>\r\nIn his 12-volume <em>General History of the Things of New Spain<\/em>, written between c. 1540 and 1585, the Franciscan missionary Bernardino de Sahag\u00fan reports that amongst the Aztecs, \"learned, virtuous, and enterprising rhetoricians were held in high esteem\" [footnote]<span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"><em>Historia general de las cosas de Nueva Espa\u00f1a<\/em>, edited by Angel Maria Garibay K., 4 vols, Porrua, 1956, 2:53.<\/span>[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nWhat Sahag\u00fan calls \"rhetoric,\" the Aztecs themselves referred to as <em>huehuetlahtolli<\/em>, a Nahuatl word formed by combining <em>huehue<\/em>, \"old man\" or \"men of old\" and <em>tlahtolli<\/em>, \"word, oration, or language.\" [footnote]Abbott, Don P. \u201cThe Ancient Word: Rhetoric in Aztec Culture.\u201d <i>Rhetorica<\/i>, vol. 5, no. 3, 1987, pp. 251\u2013264, p. 262.[\/footnote] <em>Huehuetlahtolli<\/em> were spoken in a variety of contexts, from the royal court to the individual household. In fact, an important category of speeches in Aztec culture was that of lectures given to children by parents\u00a0 [footnote]Sullivan,\u00a0Thelma D., '\"The Rhetorical Orations, or Huehuetlahtolli, collected by Sahag\u00fan,\" <em>Sixteenth-Century Mexico: The Work of Sahagun<\/em>, edited by Munro S. Edmundson, University of New Mexico Press, 1974, p. 82.[\/footnote]\u00a0 In one parental speech, a father tells his son\u00a0to be modest and moderate in all things and \"to speak very slowly, very deliberately; thou art not to speak hurriedly, not to pant, nor to squeak, lest it be said of thee that thou art a groaner, a growler, a squeaker. \u2026 And thou art to improve, to soften thy words, thy voice.\"[footnote]<em>Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain<\/em>, trans. Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles Dibble, 12 pts., School of American Research and University of Utah, 1950\u201369,\u00a0<span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">7:122.<\/span>[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nThe Aztec rhetorical tradition was highly developed and complex, and children learned public speaking in special schools. (Hopefully, your experience of public speaking isn't like the teaching strategy reported by Sahag\u00fan: \"If [a student] spoke not well, if one greeted others not well, then they drew blood from him [with maguey spines]\" (4:64\u201365)). According to Dibble (1974), \"the Aztecs conceived of their orations and prayers as the stringing of a strand of beads and the <em>huehuetlahtolli<\/em> is just that\u2014a series of metaphors one after another.\"[footnote]Dibble, Charles. \"The Nahuatlization of Christianity.\"\u00a0<i>Sixteenth Century Mexico: The Work of Sahag\u00fan<\/i>\u00a0(1974): 225\u2013233, p. 228[\/footnote]\r\n<h3><span id=\"The_Renaissance_(1400-1600_CE)\" class=\"mw-headline\">Renaissance and Enlightenment Europe (1400-1800 CE)<\/span><\/h3>\r\nPowered by a new intellectual movement during the Renaissance period, secular institutions and governments started to compete with the Church for personal allegiances. As more people felt comfortable challenging the Church\u2019s approach to education, reinvigorated attention to classical learning, and fresh opportunities for scholarly education reemerged.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_966\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"279\"]<img class=\"size-medium wp-image-966\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5348\/2020\/09\/17013901\/Christine_de_Pisan_-_cathedra-279x300.jpg\" alt=\"A medieval painting of a woman speaking with three men\" width=\"279\" height=\"300\" \/> Christine de Pisan giving a lecture (1413)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<strong>Christine de Pisan<\/strong> (1365\u20131429) has been praised as \u201cEurope\u2019s first professional woman writer,\u201d writing 41 pieces over a 30-year period.[footnote]Redfern, Jenny R. \u201cChristine de Pisan and the Treasure of the City of Ladies: A Medieval Rhetorician and Her Rhetoric.\u201d Reclaiming Rhetorica: Women in the Rhetorical Tradition, by Andrea A. Lunsford, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995, pp. 73\u201385, p. 74.[\/footnote] Her most famous work, <em>The Treasure of the Cities of Ladies<\/em>, provided instruction to women on how they could achieve their potential and create for themselves lives rich in meaning and importance. According to Redfern, while \u201cshe neither calls herself a rhetorician nor calls <em>The Treasure<\/em> a rhetoric, her instruction has the potential to empower women\u2019s speech acts in both public and private matters. Her most important lesson is that women\u2019s success depends on their ability to manage and mediate by speaking and writing effectively\u201d[footnote]Redfern\u00a074.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<strong>Francis Bacon<\/strong> (1561\u20131626), a contemporary of Shakespeare, believed that the journey to truth was paramount to the study and performance of communication. Bacon was an English philosopher who was well known for being the father of empiricism, the theory that all knowledge is tied to the senses. Empiricism\u00a0is a fundamental part of the scientific method that all hypotheses and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world rather than resting solely on tradition, intuition, or revelation. Elsewhere in this course, you'll learn about argument and evidence; the insistence that arguments are built on evidence in the Western academic tradition owes largely to Empiricism and scientific method. Scientific method and rationality were particularly emphasized during the European intellectual movement known as the <strong>Enlightenment<\/strong>, from around 1600\u20131800.\r\n<h3>Indigenous Storytelling in North America<\/h3>\r\nEvery year, highly trained speakers spend up to eight days reciting the Great Law of the Iroquois Confederacy entirely from memory. The speakers have learned the law from older mentors who guide and correct their narration, and use wampum beads to track the order of the recitation. This process of oral transmission has been in place for over 1,000 years.[footnote]Malott, Curry Stephenson, Lisa Waukau, and Lauren Waukau-Villagomez. \"Native American Literacies and the Language Arts Curriculum.\"\u00a0<i>Counterpoints<\/i>\u00a0349 (2009): 173\u2013200, p. 180.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nIn all the cultures indigenous to North America,\u00a0oratory and storytelling have long been used for instruction, entertainment, and the transmission of cultural memory.[footnote]Hodge, Felicia Schanche, and Larri Fredericks. <i>The Circle: an Anthology of American Indian Women's Stories<\/i>. Center for American Indian Research &amp; Education, 1996.[\/footnote] These oral traditions are as diverse as the populations who have been living on the continent since prehistoric times, from the Seminole and Choctaw in the Southeast to the Chinook and Tlingit in the Northwest.\r\n\r\nAlthough it is impossible to generalize about cultures as varied as these, some experts have identified common patterns amongst some North American indigenous oral traditions, especially as a pointed contrast to European ways of thinking and speaking.\u00a0Vine Deloria Jr., an author, theologian, historian, activist, and member of the\u00a0Standing Rock Sioux, described what he saw as a key difference between Western scientific knowledge and the knowledge systems of the Western Sioux:\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">If the Western Sioux obtained their knowledge by accepting everything they experienced as grist for the mill, Western science has drawn its conclusions by excluding the kinds of data that the Western Sioux cherished. Western science holds that ideas, concepts, and experiences must be clearly stated, and be capable of replication in an experimental setting by an objective observer. Any bit of data or body of knowledge that does not meet this standard is suspect or rejected out of hand.[footnote]Deloria, Vine. \"If You Think about It, You Will See That It is True.\"\u00a0<em>Spirit &amp; Reason: The Vine Deloria, Jr., Reader<\/em>. Fulcrum Publishing, 1999.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">Indian knowledge is designed to make statements that adequately describe the experience or phenomenon. That is to say, they include everything that is known about the experience even if no firm conclusions are reached. There are many instances in the oral traditions of the tribe in which, after reviewing everything that is known about a certain thing, the storyteller simply states that what he has said was passed down to him by elders or that he marveled at the phenomenon and was unable to explain it further. It is permissible within the Indian context to admit that something mysterious remains after all is said and done.[footnote]Deloria, Vine. \"Higher Education and Self-Determination.\"\u00a0<em>Spirit &amp; Reason: The Vine Deloria, Jr., Reader<\/em>. Fulcrum Publishing, 1999.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\nIn these passages, Deloria draws a contrast between Western analytic or scientific method, which looks for contradictions or discrepancies in a body of information and rejects it if it is inconsistent, and \"Indian knowledge\" (more specifically, that of the Western Sioux), which attempts to describe the entirety of an experience, even if parts of that experience are difficult to explain or contradict each other. Deloria's point here<span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">\u00a0serves as a reminder that the modes of argumentation we\u2019ll learn in this class\u2014which fall squarely within the Western analytic tradition\u2014are not not \u201ccorrect\u201d or natural, but are the products of a specific historical development.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\nStorytelling continues to be an important part of contemporary American Indian life, whether passing along knowledge from one generation to the next, entertaining crowds with sketch comedy[footnote]<em>The 1491s<\/em>, http:\/\/www.1491s.com\/[\/footnote], or promoting wellness. [footnote]Hodge, Felicia Schanche, et al. \"Utilizing Traditional Storytelling to Promote Wellness in American Indian Communities.\"\u00a0<i>Journal of Transcultural Nursing<\/i>\u00a013.1 (2002): 6\u201311[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<p>Recognize the variety of approaches to rhetoric and oratory in different times and cultures.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>As the Roman Empire fell and the historical period known as the Middle Ages (c. 400\u20131400) dominated, rhetoric fell from grace. It was no longer a valued and honored skill but instead was thought of as a pagan art. This view coincided with the Christian domination of the period, as \u201cChristians believed that the rhetorical ideas formulated by the pagans of classical Greece and Rome should not be studied and that possession of Christian truth was accompanied by an automatic ability to communicate the truth effectively.\u201d <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Foss, Sonja K., et al. Contemporary Perspectives on Rhetoric. Waveland Press, 2014, p. 8\" id=\"return-footnote-907-1\" href=\"#footnote-907-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Fortunately for us, the teachings of classical rhetoric were not lost forever: Even as the teachings of Aristotle and other classical rhetoricians were being expunged in Europe, they were finding new resonance in the Islamic world.<\/p>\n<h3>Rhetoric in the Middle East<\/h3>\n<p>Abu Nasr <strong>Al-Farabi<\/strong> (Persian: \u0627\u0628\u0648 \u0646\u0635\u0631 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0628\u0646 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0641\u0627\u0631\u0627\u0628\u06cc\u200e, c. 872\u2013951) was a renowned, early Islamic philosopher and jurist who wrote in the fields of political philosophy, metaphysics, ethics, and logic. He was also a scientist, cosmologist, mathematician, and music scholar.<\/p>\n<p>In Islamic philosophical tradition, he was often called &#8220;the Second Teacher,&#8221; following Aristotle who was known as &#8220;the First Teacher.&#8221;<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"L\u00f3pez-Farjeat, Luis Xavier. &quot;Al-Farabi's Psychology and Epistemology.&quot;\u00a0Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. by Edward N. Zalta, 2016.\" id=\"return-footnote-907-2\" href=\"#footnote-907-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a> He is credited with preserving the original Greek texts during the Middle Ages because of his commentaries and treatises, and influencing many prominent philosophers. Through his works, he became well-known in the West as well as the East. Al-Farabi had a great influence on <strong>Maimonides<\/strong>, the most important Jewish thinker of the middle ages.<\/p>\n<p>Ibn Rushd (Full name in Arabic: \u0623\u0628\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0644\u064a\u062f \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0627\u0628\u0646 \u0627\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0627\u0628\u0646 \u0631\u0634\u062f\u200e, c. 1126\u20131198), often Latinized as <strong>Averro\u00ebs<\/strong>, was a Muslim Andalusian polymath and jurist who wrote about many subjects, including philosophy, theology, medicine, astronomy, physics, psychology, mathematics, Islamic jurisprudence and law, and linguistics. Averro\u00ebs is best known for his comprehensive commentaries on Aristotle, as well as his contributions to Islamic theology, including the argument laid out in Fasl al-Maqal (&#8220;The Decisive Treatise,&#8221; c. 1178) that philosophical thought was not incompatible with Islam. Mark Schaub has argued that &#8220;Averro\u00ebs and his fellow Islamic thinkers served as a kind of &#8216;filter&#8217; through which Aristotelian discussions of logic, theology, and also rhetoric reached the West.&#8221;<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Schaub, Mark. &quot;Rhetorical studies in America: The place of Averro\u00ebs and the Medieval Arab commentators.&quot; Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics 16 (1996): 233\u2013253.\" id=\"return-footnote-907-3\" href=\"#footnote-907-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>In the Islamic world, the notion of rhetoric intersected with two concepts in Arabic: <em>fann al-khat\u0101ba<\/em>, or the art of oratory, and <em>ilm al-bal\u0101gha<\/em>, the study of eloquence.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Halld\u00e9n, Philip. &quot;What is Arab Islamic Rhetoric? Rethinking the history of Muslim oratory art and homiletics.&quot; International Journal of Middle East Studies 37.1 (2005): 19\u201338, p. 20.\" id=\"return-footnote-907-4\" href=\"#footnote-907-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a> The science of <em>al-bal\u0101gha<\/em> can further be broken down inline with the categories offered by Muhammad ibn &#8216;Abd al-Rahman al-Qazwini (d. 1338):<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><em>&#8216;Ilm al-ma&#8217;ani<\/em> (the science of meanings [making your language appropriate to the audience and the situation])<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><em>&#8216;Ilm al-bayan<\/em> (the science of clarity [of language])<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><em>&#8216;Ilm al-badi&#8217;<\/em> (the science of ornamentation) (Halld\u00e9n, p. 21)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Even if these words are unfamiliar to you, you&#8217;ll certainly learn a lot about these three areas in the course of this public speaking class! Whether reflecting on how to get your meaning across to a specific audience, deciding how to express your ideas in the clearest way, or constructing elegant, compelling sentences with effective tropes and rhythms, modern understandings of effective speaking still carry echoes of its early history\u2014whether in Greece, Rome, or the Middle East. Each of these cultures, in turn, was influenced by the teachings of earlier civilizations in the region, such as Sumeria or ancient Egypt.<\/p>\n<h3>The <em>Jeli<\/em>\u00a0or <em>Griot\u00a0<\/em>Tradition in the Mali Empire<\/h3>\n<div id=\"attachment_939\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-939\" class=\"wp-image-939 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5348\/2020\/09\/16202846\/main-image-240x300.jpg\" alt=\"Wooden sculpture of two figures seated at a balafon instrument, which looks like a xylophone or a marimba.\" width=\"240\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-939\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pair of Balafon Players, 18th\u2013early 19th century, Dogon peoples. &#8220;This work may&#8230; refer to a series of events related in the epic narratives surrounding the formation of the Mali empire (ca. 1230)&#8230; According to these oral histories, a balafon player had a central role in the defeat of the Soso kingdom and its invincible ruler Soumaworo. In a ruse, Mali&#8217;s ruler Sundiata Keita sent his sister Sologon and the court musician Bala Fass\u00e9k\u00e9 Kouyat\u00e9 to Soso as spies to discover the source of Soumaworo&#8217;s power. Through Sologon&#8217;s beauty and Kouyat\u00e9&#8217;s masterful balafon playing, they learned Soumaworo&#8217;s secret and Keita defeated him on the battlefield.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/312346\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Source: The Met Museum<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The Mali Empire (Manding: <em>Nyeni<\/em> or <em>Niani<\/em>; also historically referred to as the <em>Manden Kurufaba<\/em>, sometimes shortened to <em>Manden<\/em>) was an empire in West Africa from around c. 1235 to 1670.\u00a0The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita, whose exploits remain celebrated in Mali today. In the <em>Epic of Sundiata,<\/em>\u00a0Sundiata Keita has a trusted advisor named Balla Fass\u00e9k\u00e9.\u00a0Fass\u00e9k\u00e9 has an important role in\u00a0Sundiata Keita&#8217;s royal court: he is a\u00a0<em>griot.\u00a0<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">In Mand\u00e9 society, the <\/span><em style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"><strong>jeli<\/strong>, <\/em><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">or <\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"><em>griot<\/em><\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">,\u00a0was an historian, advisor, arbitrator, praise singer, and storyteller. They essentially served as history books, preserving ancient stories and traditions through song. Their tradition was passed down through generations. The name <\/span><em style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">jeli<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"> means &#8220;blood&#8221; in Manika language. They were believed to have deep connections to spiritual, social, or political powers. In his account of a visit to the Mali royal court in c. 1352,\u00a0Abdalla Ibn Battuta describes the performance of the <em>griots<\/em><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">:<\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">It was mentioned to me that their poetry is a kind of preaching. In it they tell the sultan that this <em>banbi<\/em> [throne] on which he is, such and such of the kings of Mali sat on it, and such and such were the good deeds of one, such and such another\u2019s. \u201cSo do good, that good will be recounted after you.&#8221;<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Batuta, Ibn, Said Hamdun, and Noel Quinton King.\u00a0Ibn Battuta in Black Africa. Markus Wiener Pub, 2005. AQI Campbell, Kermit E. &quot;Rhetoric from the Ruins of African Antiquity.&quot;\u00a0Rhetorica\u00a024.3 (2006): 255\u2013274, pp. 271\u2013272.\" id=\"return-footnote-907-5\" href=\"#footnote-907-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_916\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-916\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-916\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5348\/2020\/09\/15180721\/Papa1999.b-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"A man in traditional West African clothing sitting on a cushion and playing a string instrument\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-916\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mandinka <em>Griot<\/em> Al-Haji Papa Bunka Susso performing songs from the oral tradition of the Gambia on the kora.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>From this story, we see an important function of the\u00a0<em>griot<\/em>: to speak truth to power as a representative of the will of the people.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Campbell p. 272\" id=\"return-footnote-907-6\" href=\"#footnote-907-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Hale, Thomas A. Griots and Griottes Masters of Words and Music. Indiana University Press, 2007, p. 79.\" id=\"return-footnote-907-7\" href=\"#footnote-907-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>The\u00a0<em>griot<\/em>\u00a0tradition has continued, expanded, and evolved over the centuries and remains a thriving profession in West Africa and in the African diaspora more generally.<\/p>\n<h3>Public Speaking in the Aztec Empire<\/h3>\n<p>In his 12-volume <em>General History of the Things of New Spain<\/em>, written between c. 1540 and 1585, the Franciscan missionary Bernardino de Sahag\u00fan reports that amongst the Aztecs, &#8220;learned, virtuous, and enterprising rhetoricians were held in high esteem&#8221; <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Historia general de las cosas de Nueva Espa\u00f1a, edited by Angel Maria Garibay K., 4 vols, Porrua, 1956, 2:53.\" id=\"return-footnote-907-8\" href=\"#footnote-907-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>What Sahag\u00fan calls &#8220;rhetoric,&#8221; the Aztecs themselves referred to as <em>huehuetlahtolli<\/em>, a Nahuatl word formed by combining <em>huehue<\/em>, &#8220;old man&#8221; or &#8220;men of old&#8221; and <em>tlahtolli<\/em>, &#8220;word, oration, or language.&#8221; <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Abbott, Don P. \u201cThe Ancient Word: Rhetoric in Aztec Culture.\u201d Rhetorica, vol. 5, no. 3, 1987, pp. 251\u2013264, p. 262.\" id=\"return-footnote-907-9\" href=\"#footnote-907-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a> <em>Huehuetlahtolli<\/em> were spoken in a variety of contexts, from the royal court to the individual household. In fact, an important category of speeches in Aztec culture was that of lectures given to children by parents\u00a0 <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Sullivan,\u00a0Thelma D., '&quot;The Rhetorical Orations, or Huehuetlahtolli, collected by Sahag\u00fan,&quot; Sixteenth-Century Mexico: The Work of Sahagun, edited by Munro S. Edmundson, University of New Mexico Press, 1974, p. 82.\" id=\"return-footnote-907-10\" href=\"#footnote-907-10\" aria-label=\"Footnote 10\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[10]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0 In one parental speech, a father tells his son\u00a0to be modest and moderate in all things and &#8220;to speak very slowly, very deliberately; thou art not to speak hurriedly, not to pant, nor to squeak, lest it be said of thee that thou art a groaner, a growler, a squeaker. \u2026 And thou art to improve, to soften thy words, thy voice.&#8221;<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, trans. Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles Dibble, 12 pts., School of American Research and University of Utah, 1950\u201369,\u00a07:122.\" id=\"return-footnote-907-11\" href=\"#footnote-907-11\" aria-label=\"Footnote 11\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[11]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>The Aztec rhetorical tradition was highly developed and complex, and children learned public speaking in special schools. (Hopefully, your experience of public speaking isn&#8217;t like the teaching strategy reported by Sahag\u00fan: &#8220;If [a student] spoke not well, if one greeted others not well, then they drew blood from him [with maguey spines]&#8221; (4:64\u201365)). According to Dibble (1974), &#8220;the Aztecs conceived of their orations and prayers as the stringing of a strand of beads and the <em>huehuetlahtolli<\/em> is just that\u2014a series of metaphors one after another.&#8221;<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Dibble, Charles. &quot;The Nahuatlization of Christianity.&quot;\u00a0Sixteenth Century Mexico: The Work of Sahag\u00fan\u00a0(1974): 225\u2013233, p. 228\" id=\"return-footnote-907-12\" href=\"#footnote-907-12\" aria-label=\"Footnote 12\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[12]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"The_Renaissance_(1400-1600_CE)\" class=\"mw-headline\">Renaissance and Enlightenment Europe (1400-1800 CE)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Powered by a new intellectual movement during the Renaissance period, secular institutions and governments started to compete with the Church for personal allegiances. As more people felt comfortable challenging the Church\u2019s approach to education, reinvigorated attention to classical learning, and fresh opportunities for scholarly education reemerged.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_966\" style=\"width: 289px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-966\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-966\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5348\/2020\/09\/17013901\/Christine_de_Pisan_-_cathedra-279x300.jpg\" alt=\"A medieval painting of a woman speaking with three men\" width=\"279\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-966\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Christine de Pisan giving a lecture (1413)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Christine de Pisan<\/strong> (1365\u20131429) has been praised as \u201cEurope\u2019s first professional woman writer,\u201d writing 41 pieces over a 30-year period.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Redfern, Jenny R. \u201cChristine de Pisan and the Treasure of the City of Ladies: A Medieval Rhetorician and Her Rhetoric.\u201d Reclaiming Rhetorica: Women in the Rhetorical Tradition, by Andrea A. Lunsford, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995, pp. 73\u201385, p. 74.\" id=\"return-footnote-907-13\" href=\"#footnote-907-13\" aria-label=\"Footnote 13\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[13]<\/sup><\/a> Her most famous work, <em>The Treasure of the Cities of Ladies<\/em>, provided instruction to women on how they could achieve their potential and create for themselves lives rich in meaning and importance. According to Redfern, while \u201cshe neither calls herself a rhetorician nor calls <em>The Treasure<\/em> a rhetoric, her instruction has the potential to empower women\u2019s speech acts in both public and private matters. Her most important lesson is that women\u2019s success depends on their ability to manage and mediate by speaking and writing effectively\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Redfern\u00a074.\" id=\"return-footnote-907-14\" href=\"#footnote-907-14\" aria-label=\"Footnote 14\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[14]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong>Francis Bacon<\/strong> (1561\u20131626), a contemporary of Shakespeare, believed that the journey to truth was paramount to the study and performance of communication. Bacon was an English philosopher who was well known for being the father of empiricism, the theory that all knowledge is tied to the senses. Empiricism\u00a0is a fundamental part of the scientific method that all hypotheses and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world rather than resting solely on tradition, intuition, or revelation. Elsewhere in this course, you&#8217;ll learn about argument and evidence; the insistence that arguments are built on evidence in the Western academic tradition owes largely to Empiricism and scientific method. Scientific method and rationality were particularly emphasized during the European intellectual movement known as the <strong>Enlightenment<\/strong>, from around 1600\u20131800.<\/p>\n<h3>Indigenous Storytelling in North America<\/h3>\n<p>Every year, highly trained speakers spend up to eight days reciting the Great Law of the Iroquois Confederacy entirely from memory. The speakers have learned the law from older mentors who guide and correct their narration, and use wampum beads to track the order of the recitation. This process of oral transmission has been in place for over 1,000 years.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Malott, Curry Stephenson, Lisa Waukau, and Lauren Waukau-Villagomez. &quot;Native American Literacies and the Language Arts Curriculum.&quot;\u00a0Counterpoints\u00a0349 (2009): 173\u2013200, p. 180.\" id=\"return-footnote-907-15\" href=\"#footnote-907-15\" aria-label=\"Footnote 15\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[15]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>In all the cultures indigenous to North America,\u00a0oratory and storytelling have long been used for instruction, entertainment, and the transmission of cultural memory.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Hodge, Felicia Schanche, and Larri Fredericks. The Circle: an Anthology of American Indian Women's Stories. Center for American Indian Research &amp; Education, 1996.\" id=\"return-footnote-907-16\" href=\"#footnote-907-16\" aria-label=\"Footnote 16\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[16]<\/sup><\/a> These oral traditions are as diverse as the populations who have been living on the continent since prehistoric times, from the Seminole and Choctaw in the Southeast to the Chinook and Tlingit in the Northwest.<\/p>\n<p>Although it is impossible to generalize about cultures as varied as these, some experts have identified common patterns amongst some North American indigenous oral traditions, especially as a pointed contrast to European ways of thinking and speaking.\u00a0Vine Deloria Jr., an author, theologian, historian, activist, and member of the\u00a0Standing Rock Sioux, described what he saw as a key difference between Western scientific knowledge and the knowledge systems of the Western Sioux:<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">If the Western Sioux obtained their knowledge by accepting everything they experienced as grist for the mill, Western science has drawn its conclusions by excluding the kinds of data that the Western Sioux cherished. Western science holds that ideas, concepts, and experiences must be clearly stated, and be capable of replication in an experimental setting by an objective observer. Any bit of data or body of knowledge that does not meet this standard is suspect or rejected out of hand.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Deloria, Vine. &quot;If You Think about It, You Will See That It is True.&quot;\u00a0Spirit &amp; Reason: The Vine Deloria, Jr., Reader. Fulcrum Publishing, 1999.\" id=\"return-footnote-907-17\" href=\"#footnote-907-17\" aria-label=\"Footnote 17\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[17]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">Indian knowledge is designed to make statements that adequately describe the experience or phenomenon. That is to say, they include everything that is known about the experience even if no firm conclusions are reached. There are many instances in the oral traditions of the tribe in which, after reviewing everything that is known about a certain thing, the storyteller simply states that what he has said was passed down to him by elders or that he marveled at the phenomenon and was unable to explain it further. It is permissible within the Indian context to admit that something mysterious remains after all is said and done.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Deloria, Vine. &quot;Higher Education and Self-Determination.&quot;\u00a0Spirit &amp; Reason: The Vine Deloria, Jr., Reader. Fulcrum Publishing, 1999.\" id=\"return-footnote-907-18\" href=\"#footnote-907-18\" aria-label=\"Footnote 18\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[18]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>In these passages, Deloria draws a contrast between Western analytic or scientific method, which looks for contradictions or discrepancies in a body of information and rejects it if it is inconsistent, and &#8220;Indian knowledge&#8221; (more specifically, that of the Western Sioux), which attempts to describe the entirety of an experience, even if parts of that experience are difficult to explain or contradict each other. Deloria&#8217;s point here<span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">\u00a0serves as a reminder that the modes of argumentation we\u2019ll learn in this class\u2014which fall squarely within the Western analytic tradition\u2014are not not \u201ccorrect\u201d or natural, but are the products of a specific historical development.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Storytelling continues to be an important part of contemporary American Indian life, whether passing along knowledge from one generation to the next, entertaining crowds with sketch comedy<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"The 1491s, http:\/\/www.1491s.com\/\" id=\"return-footnote-907-19\" href=\"#footnote-907-19\" aria-label=\"Footnote 19\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[19]<\/sup><\/a>, or promoting wellness. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Hodge, Felicia Schanche, et al. &quot;Utilizing Traditional Storytelling to Promote Wellness in American Indian Communities.&quot;\u00a0Journal of Transcultural Nursing\u00a013.1 (2002): 6\u201311\" id=\"return-footnote-907-20\" href=\"#footnote-907-20\" aria-label=\"Footnote 20\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[20]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-907\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Rhetoric Loses its Status. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Scott T Paynton and Linda K Hahn, adapted by Boundless Communication. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontocommunication\/chapter\/174\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontocommunication\/chapter\/174\/<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Survey of Communication Study. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Griot. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Griot\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Griot<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Balafon Players. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Unknown (Dogon peoples). <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Met Museum. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/312346\">https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/312346<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Empiricism. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Empiricism\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Empiricism<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Papa Susso. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: DavidOaks. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Papa_Susso#\/media\/File:Papa1999.b.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Papa_Susso#\/media\/File:Papa1999.b.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Christine de Pisan. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: British Library. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christine_de_Pizan#\/media\/File:Christine_de_Pisan_-_cathedra.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christine_de_Pizan#\/media\/File:Christine_de_Pisan_-_cathedra.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-907-1\">Foss, Sonja K., et al. <i>Contemporary Perspectives on Rhetoric<\/i>. Waveland Press, 2014, p. 8 <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-2\">L\u00f3pez-Farjeat, Luis Xavier. \"Al-Farabi's Psychology and Epistemology.\"\u00a0<em>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/em>, ed. by Edward N. Zalta, 2016. <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-3\">Schaub, Mark. \"Rhetorical studies in America: The place of Averro\u00ebs and the Medieval Arab commentators.\" <em>Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics<\/em> 16 (1996): 233\u2013253. <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-4\">Halld\u00e9n, Philip. \"What is Arab Islamic Rhetoric? Rethinking the history of Muslim oratory art and homiletics.\" International Journal of Middle East Studies 37.1 (2005): 19\u201338, p. 20. <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-5\">Batuta, Ibn, Said Hamdun, and Noel Quinton King.\u00a0<i>Ibn Battuta in Black Africa<\/i>. Markus Wiener Pub, 2005. AQI Campbell, Kermit E. \"Rhetoric from the Ruins of African Antiquity.\"\u00a0<i>Rhetorica<\/i>\u00a024.3 (2006): 255\u2013274, pp. 271\u2013272. <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-6\">Campbell p. 272 <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-7\">Hale, Thomas A. <i>Griots and Griottes Masters of Words and Music<\/i>. Indiana University Press, 2007, p. 79. <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-8\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"><em>Historia general de las cosas de Nueva Espa\u00f1a<\/em>, edited by Angel Maria Garibay K., 4 vols, Porrua, 1956, 2:53.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-9\">Abbott, Don P. \u201cThe Ancient Word: Rhetoric in Aztec Culture.\u201d <i>Rhetorica<\/i>, vol. 5, no. 3, 1987, pp. 251\u2013264, p. 262. <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-10\">Sullivan,\u00a0Thelma D., '\"The Rhetorical Orations, or Huehuetlahtolli, collected by Sahag\u00fan,\" <em>Sixteenth-Century Mexico: The Work of Sahagun<\/em>, edited by Munro S. Edmundson, University of New Mexico Press, 1974, p. 82. <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-10\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 10\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-11\"><em>Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain<\/em>, trans. Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles Dibble, 12 pts., School of American Research and University of Utah, 1950\u201369,\u00a0<span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">7:122.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-11\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 11\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-12\">Dibble, Charles. \"The Nahuatlization of Christianity.\"\u00a0<i>Sixteenth Century Mexico: The Work of Sahag\u00fan<\/i>\u00a0(1974): 225\u2013233, p. 228 <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-12\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 12\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-13\">Redfern, Jenny R. \u201cChristine de Pisan and the Treasure of the City of Ladies: A Medieval Rhetorician and Her Rhetoric.\u201d Reclaiming Rhetorica: Women in the Rhetorical Tradition, by Andrea A. Lunsford, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995, pp. 73\u201385, p. 74. <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-13\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 13\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-14\">Redfern\u00a074. <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-14\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 14\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-15\">Malott, Curry Stephenson, Lisa Waukau, and Lauren Waukau-Villagomez. \"Native American Literacies and the Language Arts Curriculum.\"\u00a0<i>Counterpoints<\/i>\u00a0349 (2009): 173\u2013200, p. 180. <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-15\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 15\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-16\">Hodge, Felicia Schanche, and Larri Fredericks. <i>The Circle: an Anthology of American Indian Women's Stories<\/i>. Center for American Indian Research &amp; Education, 1996. <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-16\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 16\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-17\">Deloria, Vine. \"If You Think about It, You Will See That It is True.\"\u00a0<em>Spirit &amp; Reason: The Vine Deloria, Jr., Reader<\/em>. Fulcrum Publishing, 1999. <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-17\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 17\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-18\">Deloria, Vine. \"Higher Education and Self-Determination.\"\u00a0<em>Spirit &amp; Reason: The Vine Deloria, Jr., Reader<\/em>. Fulcrum Publishing, 1999. <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-18\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 18\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-19\"><em>The 1491s<\/em>, http:\/\/www.1491s.com\/ <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-19\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 19\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-907-20\">Hodge, Felicia Schanche, et al. \"Utilizing Traditional Storytelling to Promote Wellness in American Indian Communities.\"\u00a0<i>Journal of Transcultural Nursing<\/i>\u00a013.1 (2002): 6\u201311 <a href=\"#return-footnote-907-20\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 20\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":161083,"menu_order":16,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Rhetoric Loses its Status\",\"author\":\"Scott T Paynton and Linda K Hahn, adapted by Boundless Communication\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontocommunication\/chapter\/174\/\",\"project\":\"Survey of Communication Study\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Griot\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Griot\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"Papa Susso\",\"author\":\"DavidOaks\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Papa_Susso#\/media\/File:Papa1999.b.jpg\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Balafon Players\",\"author\":\"Unknown (Dogon peoples)\",\"organization\":\"Met Museum\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/312346\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc0\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Empiricism\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Empiricism\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"Christine de Pisan\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"British Library\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christine_de_Pizan#\/media\/File:Christine_de_Pisan_-_cathedra.jpg\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"8558e9cd-fb76-496b-a733-45f0f8c8abd7, 3470f306-3ab5-435f-9b1a-b1f18b3f8ae1","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-907","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-publicspeaking\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/907","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-publicspeaking\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-publicspeaking\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-publicspeaking\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/161083"}],"version-history":[{"count":53,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-publicspeaking\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/907\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2865,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-publicspeaking\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/907\/revisions\/2865"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-publicspeaking\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-publicspeaking\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/907\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-publicspeaking\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=907"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-publicspeaking\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=907"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-publicspeaking\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=907"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-publicspeaking\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=907"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}