{"id":1899,"date":"2021-02-16T15:44:29","date_gmt":"2021-02-16T15:44:29","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/chapter\/jamestown\/"},"modified":"2022-07-25T19:17:17","modified_gmt":"2022-07-25T19:17:17","slug":"jamestown","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/chapter\/jamestown\/","title":{"raw":"Jamestown","rendered":"Jamestown"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe life in the English settlement at Jamestown<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain the importance of tobacco to Jamestown and to English colonization<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe conflicts between the Jamestown settlers and the\u00a0Powhatan\u00a0Confederacy<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp39436688\">At the start of the seventeenth century, the English had not established a permanent settlement in the Americas. Over the next century, however, they outpaced their rivals. The English encouraged emigration far more than the Spanish, French, or Dutch. They established nearly a dozen colonies, sending swarms of immigrants to populate the land. England had experienced a dramatic rise in population in the sixteenth century, and the colonies appeared a welcoming place for those who faced overcrowding and grinding poverty at home. Thousands of English migrants arrived in the Chesapeake Bay colonies of Virginia and Maryland to work in the tobacco fields. Another stream, this one of pious Puritan families, sought to live as they believed scripture demanded and established the Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, New Haven, Connecticut, and Rhode Island colonies of New England.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_03_03_Settlement\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"585\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/883\/2015\/08\/23202131\/CNX_History_03_03_Settlement.jpg\" alt=\"This is a map showing the English, Dutch, French, and Spanish colonies on the Atlantic coast and the dates of their settlement, as well as the names of Indian tribes inhabiting those areas.\" width=\"585\" height=\"594\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. In the early seventeenth century, thousands of English settlers came to what are now Virginia, Maryland, and the New England states in search of opportunity and a better life.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<h2>Establishing Jamestown<\/h2>\r\nIn April 1607 Englishmen aboard three ships\u2014the <i>Susan Constant<\/i>, <i>Godspeed,<\/i> and <i>Discovery<\/i>\u2014sailed forty miles up the James River (named for the English king, James I) in present-day Virginia (named for Elizabeth I, the so-called \u201cVirgin Queen\u201d) found a seemingly good place to set up camp. The peninsula they selected was upriver and out of sight of Spanish patrols. It offered easy defense against ground assaults and was uninhabited but still located close enough to many Indian villages and their potentially lucrative trade networks.\u00a0However,\u00a0the location was a disaster. This peninsula was uninhabited because Natives\u00a0ignored\u00a0it due to\u00a0its terrible soil and the brackish tidal water that led to debilitating disease. Despite these\u00a0obstacles, it was there that\u00a0the English built Jamestown, the first permanent English colony in the present-day United States.\r\n<h3>Interactions with the Powhatan Confederacy<\/h3>\r\nThe English had not entered a wilderness but had arrived amid a people they called the Powhatan Confederacy. Powhatan, or Wahunsenacawh, as he called himself, led nearly 10,000 Algonquian-speaking Indians in the Chesapeake. They burned vast acreage to clear brush and create sprawling artificial park-like grasslands so that they could easily hunt deer, elk, and bison. The Powhatan raised corn, beans, squash, and possibly sunflowers, rotating acreage throughout the Chesapeake. Without plows, manure, or draft animals, the Powhatan produced\u00a0a remarkable amount of foodstuffs\u00a0cheaply and efficiently.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1229\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"472\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/Virginia_fishing_1590.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-1229 \" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/880\/2015\/04\/23193028\/Virginia_fishing_1590-1000x562.jpg\" alt=\"Native Virginians fishing in a boat\" width=\"472\" height=\"265\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>.\u00a0<em>Incolarum Virginiae piscandi ratio<\/em> (The Method of Fishing of the Inhabitants of Virginia), c. 1590, by\u00a0Theodor de Bry.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nJamestown was a profit-seeking venture backed by investors. The colonists were mostly gentlemen and proved entirely unprepared for the challenges ahead. They hoped for easy riches but found none. The peninsula\u2019s location was poisonous and supplies from England were sporadic or spoiled. As John Smith later complained, the settlers\u00a0\u201cwould rather starve than work.\u201d And so they did. Disease and starvation ravaged the colonists. Fewer than half of the original colonists survived the first nine months.\r\n\r\nJohn Smith, a capable leader, took command of the crippled colony and promised, \u201cHe that will not work shall not eat.\u201d He navigated Indian diplomacy, claiming that he was captured and sentenced to death but Powhatan\u2019s daughter, Pocahontas, intervened to save his life. She would later marry another colonist, John Rolfe, and die in England.\r\n\r\nPowhatan kept the English alive that first winter. The Powhatan had welcomed the English and their manufactured goods. The Powhatan placed a high value on metal axe-heads, kettles, tools, and guns and eagerly traded furs and other abundant goods for them. With 10,000 confederated Native peoples and food in abundance, the Indians had little to fear and much to gain from the isolated outpost of sick and dying Englishmen.\r\n<h3>Starvation in Jamestown<\/h3>\r\nDespite reinforcements, the English continued to die. Four hundred settlers arrived in 1609 and the overwhelmed colony entered a desperate \u201cstarving time\u201d in the winter of 1609-1610. Supplies were lost at sea. Relations with the Indians deteriorated and the colonists fought a kind of slow-burning guerrilla war with the Powhatan. Disaster loomed for the colony. The settlers ate everything they could, roaming the woods for nuts and berries. They boiled leather. They dug up graves to eat the corpses of their former neighbors. One man was executed for killing and eating his wife.\r\n\r\nSome years later, George Percy recalled the colonists\u2019 desperation during these years, when he served as the colony\u2019s president: \u201cHaving fed upon our horses and other beasts as long as they lasted, we were glad to make shift with vermin as dogs, cats, rats and mice \u2026 as to eat boots shoes or any other leather \u2026 And now famine beginning to look ghastly and pale in every face, that nothing was spared to maintain life and to doe those things which seam incredible, as to dig up dead corpses out of graves and to eat them.\u201d Archaeological excavations in 2012 exhumed the bones of a fourteen-year-old girl that exhibited the telltale signs of cannibalism. By the summer of 1610, all but 60 settlers had died.\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Desperation at Jamestown<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp16397632\">Many of Jamestown\u2019s settlers were desperate men. Although they came from elite families, they were younger sons who would not inherit their father\u2019s estates. The Jamestown adventurers believed they would find instant wealth in the New World and did not actually expect to have to perform work.\u00a0George Percy, the eighth son of the Earl of Northumberland, was among them. His account, excerpted below, illustrates the hardships the English confronted in Virginia in 1607.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp85850256\" class=\"history my-story\">\r\n<blockquote id=\"fs-idp37492224\">\r\n<div>\r\n\r\nThe fourth day of September died Thomas Jacob Sergeant. The fifth day, there died Benjamin Beast. Our men were destroyed with cruel diseases, as Swellings, Fluxes, Burning Fevers, and by wars, and some departed suddenly, but for the most part they died of mere famine. There were never Englishmen left in a foreign Country in such misery as we were in this new discovered Virginia. . . . Our food was but a small Can of Barley sod* in water, to five men a day, our drink cold water taken out of the River, which was at a flood very salty, at a low tide full of slime and filth, which was the destruction of many of our men. Thus we lived for the space of five months in this miserable distress, not having five able men to man our Bulwarks upon any occasion. If it had not pleased God to have put a terror in the Savages\u2019 hearts, we had all perished by those wild and cruel Pagans, being in that weak estate as we were; our men night and day groaning in every corner of the Fort most pitiful to hear. If there were any conscience in men, it would make their hearts to bleed to hear the pitiful murmurings and outcries of our sick men without relief, every night and day, for the space of six weeks, some departing out of the World, many times three or four in a night; in the morning, their bodies trailed out of their Cabins like Dogs to be buried. In this sort did I see the mortality of diverse of our people.\r\n\r\n<em>*soaked<\/em>\r\n\r\n<\/div><\/blockquote>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp27632576\">According to George Percy\u2019s account, what were the major problems the Jamestown settlers encountered? What kept the colony from complete destruction?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nDid the colonists in Jamestown really resort to cannibalism? This video examines the evidence.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=6771095&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=XHGI50ebhA0&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-2r30kars-XHGI50ebhA0\" width=\"800px\" height=\"450px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\nYou can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/WM-US+History\/CannibalismAtJamestownListeningToTheBonesTIME.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cCannibalism At Jamestown: Listening To The Bones | Time\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nLittle improved over the next several years. By 1616, 80 percent of all English immigrants that arrived in Jamestown had perished. England\u2019s first American colony was a catastrophe. The colony was reorganized and in 1614 the marriage of Pocahontas to John Rolfe eased relations with the Powhatan, though the colony still limped along as a starving, commercially disastrous tragedy. The colonists were unable to find any profitable commodities and they still depended upon the Indians and sporadic shipments from England for food. But then tobacco saved Jamestown.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/48a5868a-316f-4e19-8419-104759e6ba4b\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Tobacco Saves Jamestown<\/h2>\r\nBy the time King James I described tobacco as a \u201cnoxious weed, \u2026 loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain, and dangerous to the lungs,\u201d it had already taken Europe by storm. In 1616 John Rolfe crossed tobacco strains from Trinidad and Guiana and planted Virginia\u2019s first tobacco crop. In 1617 the colony sent its first cargo of tobacco back to England. The \u201cnoxious weed,\u201d a Native of the New World, fetched a high price in Europe and the tobacco boom began in Virginia, later spreading\u00a0to Maryland. \u201cTobacco created a gold rush society in Virginia,\u201d wrote one historian. Within fifteen years American colonists were exporting over 500,000 pounds of tobacco per year. Within forty years, they were exporting fifteen million.\r\n\r\nTobacco changed everything. It saved Virginia from ruin, incentivized further colonization, and laid the groundwork for what would become the United States. With a new market open, Virginia drew not only merchants and traders, but also settlers. Colonists came in droves. They were mostly young, mostly male, and mostly <strong>indentured servants.<\/strong>\r\n\r\nAn indenture is a labor contract that young, impoverished, and often illiterate Englishmen and occasionally Englishwomen signed in England, pledging to work for a number of years (usually between five and seven) growing tobacco in the Chesapeake colonies. In return, indentured servants received paid passage to America and food, clothing, and lodging. At the end of their indenture servants received \u201cfreedom dues,\u201d usually food and other provisions, including, in some cases, land provided by the colony. The promise of a new life in America was a strong attraction for members of England\u2019s underclass, who had few if any options at home. In the 1600s, some 100,000 indentured servants traveled to the Chesapeake Bay. Most were poor young men in their early twenties.\r\n<h3>Life in servitude<\/h3>\r\nLife in the colonies proved harsh, however. Indentured servants could not marry, and they were subject to the will of the tobacco planters who bought their labor contracts. If they committed a crime or disobeyed their masters, they found their terms of service lengthened, often by several years. Female indentured servants faced special dangers in what was essentially a bachelor colony. Many were exploited by unscrupulous tobacco planters who seduced them with promises of marriage. These planters would then sell their pregnant servants to other tobacco planters to avoid the costs of raising a child.\r\n\r\nBut even the rough terms of servitude were no match for the promise of land and potential profits that beckoned ambitious and dispossessed English farmers alike. But Still, there were not enough of them. Tobacco was a labor-intensive crop and ambitious planters, with seemingly limitless land before them, lacked only laborers to exponentially escalate their wealth and status. The colony\u2019s great labor vacuum inspired the creation of the <strong>headright system\u00a0<\/strong>in 1618: any person who migrated to Virginia would automatically receive fifty acres of land and any immigrant whose passage they paid would entitle them to fifty acres more.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"260\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/883\/2015\/08\/23202134\/CNX_History_03_03_Pocahontas.jpg\" alt=\"This is a 1616 portrait of Pocahontas depicting a young woman with Indian features in traditional European dress, including a tall hat and an Elizabethan ruff, and a regal pose.\" width=\"260\" height=\"375\" \/> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. This 1616 engraving by Simon van de Passe, completed when Pocahontas and John Rolfe were presented at court in England, is the only known contemporary image of Pocahontas. Note her European garb and pose. What message did the painter likely intend to convey with this portrait of Pocahontas, the daughter of a powerful Indian chief?[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn 1619 the Virginia Company established the House of Burgesses, a limited representative body composed of white landowners that first met in Jamestown. That same year, a Dutch slave ship sold twenty Africans to the Virginia colonists. Southern slavery was born.\r\n\r\nSoon the tobacco-growing colonists expanded beyond the bounds of Jamestown\u2019s deadly peninsula. When it became clear that the English were not merely intent on maintaining a small trading post, but sought a permanent ever-expanding colony, conflict with the Powhatan Confederacy became almost inevitable.\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm3375312\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm98440960\" class=\"history click-and-explore\">\r\n<h2 id=\"fs-idp23876144\">The Anglo-Powhatan Wars<\/h2>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm23686240\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm84810096\">By choosing to settle along the rivers on the banks of the Chesapeake, the English unknowingly placed themselves at the center of the Powhatan Empire, a powerful Algonquian confederacy of thirty Native groups with perhaps as many as twenty-two thousand people. The territory of the equally impressive <span class=\"no-emphasis\">Susquehannock<\/span> people also bordered English settlements at the north end of the Chesapeake Bay.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm106926512\">Tensions ran high between the English and the Powhatan, and near-constant war prevailed. The First Anglo-Powhatan War (1609\u20131614) resulted not only from the English colonists\u2019 intrusion onto Powhatan land, but also from their refusal to follow Native protocol by giving gifts. English actions infuriated and insulted the Powhatan. In 1613, the settlers captured Pocahontas (also called Matoaka), the daughter of a Powhatan headman named Wahunsonacook, and gave her in marriage to Englishman John Rolfe. Their union, and her choice to remain with the English, helped quell the war in 1614. Pocahontas converted to Christianity, changing her name to Rebecca, and sailed with her husband and several other Powhatan to England where she was introduced to King James I. Promoters of colonization publicized Pocahontas as an example of the good work of converting the Powhatan to Christianity.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nExplore the interactive exhibit <a href=\"http:\/\/www.pbs.org\/wgbh\/nova\/ancient\/images-pocahontas.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Changing Images of Pocahontas<\/a> on PBS\u2019s website to see the many ways artists have portrayed Pocahontas over the centuries.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm4053312\" class=\"history click-and-explore\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm76433088\">Peace in Virginia did not last long. The Second Anglo-Powhatan War (1620s) broke out because of the expansion of the English settlement nearly one hundred miles into the interior, and because of the continued insults and friction caused by English activities. Powhatan died in 1622 and was succeeded by his brother, Opechancanough, who promised to drive the land-hungry colonists back into the sea. He launched a surprise attack and in a single day (March 22, 1622) killed 347 colonists, or one-fourth of all the colonists in Virginia. The English responded by annihilating every Powhatan village around Jamestown and from then on became even more intolerant. The Third Anglo-Powhatan War (1644\u20131646) began with a surprise attack in which the Powhatan killed around five hundred English colonists. However, their ultimate defeat in this conflict forced the Powhatan to acknowledge the English king,\u00a0Charles I, as their sovereign. The Anglo-Powhatan Wars, spanning nearly forty years, illustrate the degree of Native resistance that resulted from English intrusion into the Powhatan confederacy.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>English colonists brought to the New World particular visions of racial, cultural, and religious supremacy. Despite starving in the shadow of the Powhatan Confederacy, English colonists nevertheless judged themselves physically, spiritually, and technologically superior to Native peoples in North America. Christianity, metallurgy, intensive agriculture, trans-Atlantic navigation, and even wheat all magnified the English sense of superiority. This sense of superiority, when coupled with outbreaks of violence, left the English feeling entitled to indigenous lands and resources.\r\n\r\nIn 1622, at the dawn of the tobacco boom, Jamestown had still seemed a failure. But the rise of tobacco and the destruction of the Powhatan turned the tide. Colonists escaped the deadly peninsula and immigrants poured into the colony to grow tobacco. By 1650 over fifteen thousand colonists called Virginia home, and the colony began to turn a profit for the Crown.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/750c11ca-8827-4b5d-a673-8933ec6a66a0\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/e3475adf-e152-4096-a3e0-d3919755f2f1\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3>Review Question<\/h3>\r\nHow did the Chesapeake colonists solve their labor problems?[reveal-answer q=\"316634\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"316634\"]They encouraged colonization by offering headrights to anyone who could pay his own way to Virginia: fifty acres for each passage. They also used the system of indenture, in which people (usually men) who didn\u2019t have enough money to pay their own passage could work for a set number of years and then gain their own land. Increasingly, they also turned to enslaved Africans as a cheap labor source.[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n<strong>headright system:<\/strong> a system in which parcels of land were granted to settlers who could pay their own way to Virginia, or to those who paid for others to come to Virginia\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n<strong>indenture:<\/strong> a labor contract that promised young men, and sometimes women, passage to the colonies, money, and land after they worked for a set number of years\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe life in the English settlement at Jamestown<\/li>\n<li>Explain the importance of tobacco to Jamestown and to English colonization<\/li>\n<li>Describe conflicts between the Jamestown settlers and the\u00a0Powhatan\u00a0Confederacy<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp39436688\">At the start of the seventeenth century, the English had not established a permanent settlement in the Americas. Over the next century, however, they outpaced their rivals. The English encouraged emigration far more than the Spanish, French, or Dutch. They established nearly a dozen colonies, sending swarms of immigrants to populate the land. England had experienced a dramatic rise in population in the sixteenth century, and the colonies appeared a welcoming place for those who faced overcrowding and grinding poverty at home. Thousands of English migrants arrived in the Chesapeake Bay colonies of Virginia and Maryland to work in the tobacco fields. Another stream, this one of pious Puritan families, sought to live as they believed scripture demanded and established the Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, New Haven, Connecticut, and Rhode Island colonies of New England.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_03_03_Settlement\">\n<div style=\"width: 595px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/883\/2015\/08\/23202131\/CNX_History_03_03_Settlement.jpg\" alt=\"This is a map showing the English, Dutch, French, and Spanish colonies on the Atlantic coast and the dates of their settlement, as well as the names of Indian tribes inhabiting those areas.\" width=\"585\" height=\"594\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. In the early seventeenth century, thousands of English settlers came to what are now Virginia, Maryland, and the New England states in search of opportunity and a better life.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<h2>Establishing Jamestown<\/h2>\n<p>In April 1607 Englishmen aboard three ships\u2014the <i>Susan Constant<\/i>, <i>Godspeed,<\/i> and <i>Discovery<\/i>\u2014sailed forty miles up the James River (named for the English king, James I) in present-day Virginia (named for Elizabeth I, the so-called \u201cVirgin Queen\u201d) found a seemingly good place to set up camp. The peninsula they selected was upriver and out of sight of Spanish patrols. It offered easy defense against ground assaults and was uninhabited but still located close enough to many Indian villages and their potentially lucrative trade networks.\u00a0However,\u00a0the location was a disaster. This peninsula was uninhabited because Natives\u00a0ignored\u00a0it due to\u00a0its terrible soil and the brackish tidal water that led to debilitating disease. Despite these\u00a0obstacles, it was there that\u00a0the English built Jamestown, the first permanent English colony in the present-day United States.<\/p>\n<h3>Interactions with the Powhatan Confederacy<\/h3>\n<p>The English had not entered a wilderness but had arrived amid a people they called the Powhatan Confederacy. Powhatan, or Wahunsenacawh, as he called himself, led nearly 10,000 Algonquian-speaking Indians in the Chesapeake. They burned vast acreage to clear brush and create sprawling artificial park-like grasslands so that they could easily hunt deer, elk, and bison. The Powhatan raised corn, beans, squash, and possibly sunflowers, rotating acreage throughout the Chesapeake. Without plows, manure, or draft animals, the Powhatan produced\u00a0a remarkable amount of foodstuffs\u00a0cheaply and efficiently.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1229\" style=\"width: 482px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/Virginia_fishing_1590.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1229\" class=\"wp-image-1229\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/880\/2015\/04\/23193028\/Virginia_fishing_1590-1000x562.jpg\" alt=\"Native Virginians fishing in a boat\" width=\"472\" height=\"265\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1229\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>.\u00a0<em>Incolarum Virginiae piscandi ratio<\/em> (The Method of Fishing of the Inhabitants of Virginia), c. 1590, by\u00a0Theodor de Bry.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Jamestown was a profit-seeking venture backed by investors. The colonists were mostly gentlemen and proved entirely unprepared for the challenges ahead. They hoped for easy riches but found none. The peninsula\u2019s location was poisonous and supplies from England were sporadic or spoiled. As John Smith later complained, the settlers\u00a0\u201cwould rather starve than work.\u201d And so they did. Disease and starvation ravaged the colonists. Fewer than half of the original colonists survived the first nine months.<\/p>\n<p>John Smith, a capable leader, took command of the crippled colony and promised, \u201cHe that will not work shall not eat.\u201d He navigated Indian diplomacy, claiming that he was captured and sentenced to death but Powhatan\u2019s daughter, Pocahontas, intervened to save his life. She would later marry another colonist, John Rolfe, and die in England.<\/p>\n<p>Powhatan kept the English alive that first winter. The Powhatan had welcomed the English and their manufactured goods. The Powhatan placed a high value on metal axe-heads, kettles, tools, and guns and eagerly traded furs and other abundant goods for them. With 10,000 confederated Native peoples and food in abundance, the Indians had little to fear and much to gain from the isolated outpost of sick and dying Englishmen.<\/p>\n<h3>Starvation in Jamestown<\/h3>\n<p>Despite reinforcements, the English continued to die. Four hundred settlers arrived in 1609 and the overwhelmed colony entered a desperate \u201cstarving time\u201d in the winter of 1609-1610. Supplies were lost at sea. Relations with the Indians deteriorated and the colonists fought a kind of slow-burning guerrilla war with the Powhatan. Disaster loomed for the colony. The settlers ate everything they could, roaming the woods for nuts and berries. They boiled leather. They dug up graves to eat the corpses of their former neighbors. One man was executed for killing and eating his wife.<\/p>\n<p>Some years later, George Percy recalled the colonists\u2019 desperation during these years, when he served as the colony\u2019s president: \u201cHaving fed upon our horses and other beasts as long as they lasted, we were glad to make shift with vermin as dogs, cats, rats and mice \u2026 as to eat boots shoes or any other leather \u2026 And now famine beginning to look ghastly and pale in every face, that nothing was spared to maintain life and to doe those things which seam incredible, as to dig up dead corpses out of graves and to eat them.\u201d Archaeological excavations in 2012 exhumed the bones of a fourteen-year-old girl that exhibited the telltale signs of cannibalism. By the summer of 1610, all but 60 settlers had died.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Desperation at Jamestown<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp16397632\">Many of Jamestown\u2019s settlers were desperate men. Although they came from elite families, they were younger sons who would not inherit their father\u2019s estates. The Jamestown adventurers believed they would find instant wealth in the New World and did not actually expect to have to perform work.\u00a0George Percy, the eighth son of the Earl of Northumberland, was among them. His account, excerpted below, illustrates the hardships the English confronted in Virginia in 1607.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp85850256\" class=\"history my-story\">\n<blockquote id=\"fs-idp37492224\">\n<div>\n<p>The fourth day of September died Thomas Jacob Sergeant. The fifth day, there died Benjamin Beast. Our men were destroyed with cruel diseases, as Swellings, Fluxes, Burning Fevers, and by wars, and some departed suddenly, but for the most part they died of mere famine. There were never Englishmen left in a foreign Country in such misery as we were in this new discovered Virginia. . . . Our food was but a small Can of Barley sod* in water, to five men a day, our drink cold water taken out of the River, which was at a flood very salty, at a low tide full of slime and filth, which was the destruction of many of our men. Thus we lived for the space of five months in this miserable distress, not having five able men to man our Bulwarks upon any occasion. If it had not pleased God to have put a terror in the Savages\u2019 hearts, we had all perished by those wild and cruel Pagans, being in that weak estate as we were; our men night and day groaning in every corner of the Fort most pitiful to hear. If there were any conscience in men, it would make their hearts to bleed to hear the pitiful murmurings and outcries of our sick men without relief, every night and day, for the space of six weeks, some departing out of the World, many times three or four in a night; in the morning, their bodies trailed out of their Cabins like Dogs to be buried. In this sort did I see the mortality of diverse of our people.<\/p>\n<p><em>*soaked<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p id=\"fs-idp27632576\">According to George Percy\u2019s account, what were the major problems the Jamestown settlers encountered? What kept the colony from complete destruction?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Did the colonists in Jamestown really resort to cannibalism? This video examines the evidence.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=6771095&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=XHGI50ebhA0&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-2r30kars-XHGI50ebhA0\" width=\"800px\" height=\"450px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/WM-US+History\/CannibalismAtJamestownListeningToTheBonesTIME.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cCannibalism At Jamestown: Listening To The Bones | Time\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Little improved over the next several years. By 1616, 80 percent of all English immigrants that arrived in Jamestown had perished. England\u2019s first American colony was a catastrophe. The colony was reorganized and in 1614 the marriage of Pocahontas to John Rolfe eased relations with the Powhatan, though the colony still limped along as a starving, commercially disastrous tragedy. The colonists were unable to find any profitable commodities and they still depended upon the Indians and sporadic shipments from England for food. But then tobacco saved Jamestown.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_48a5868a-316f-4e19-8419-104759e6ba4b\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/48a5868a-316f-4e19-8419-104759e6ba4b?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_48a5868a-316f-4e19-8419-104759e6ba4b\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Tobacco Saves Jamestown<\/h2>\n<p>By the time King James I described tobacco as a \u201cnoxious weed, \u2026 loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain, and dangerous to the lungs,\u201d it had already taken Europe by storm. In 1616 John Rolfe crossed tobacco strains from Trinidad and Guiana and planted Virginia\u2019s first tobacco crop. In 1617 the colony sent its first cargo of tobacco back to England. The \u201cnoxious weed,\u201d a Native of the New World, fetched a high price in Europe and the tobacco boom began in Virginia, later spreading\u00a0to Maryland. \u201cTobacco created a gold rush society in Virginia,\u201d wrote one historian. Within fifteen years American colonists were exporting over 500,000 pounds of tobacco per year. Within forty years, they were exporting fifteen million.<\/p>\n<p>Tobacco changed everything. It saved Virginia from ruin, incentivized further colonization, and laid the groundwork for what would become the United States. With a new market open, Virginia drew not only merchants and traders, but also settlers. Colonists came in droves. They were mostly young, mostly male, and mostly <strong>indentured servants.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>An indenture is a labor contract that young, impoverished, and often illiterate Englishmen and occasionally Englishwomen signed in England, pledging to work for a number of years (usually between five and seven) growing tobacco in the Chesapeake colonies. In return, indentured servants received paid passage to America and food, clothing, and lodging. At the end of their indenture servants received \u201cfreedom dues,\u201d usually food and other provisions, including, in some cases, land provided by the colony. The promise of a new life in America was a strong attraction for members of England\u2019s underclass, who had few if any options at home. In the 1600s, some 100,000 indentured servants traveled to the Chesapeake Bay. Most were poor young men in their early twenties.<\/p>\n<h3>Life in servitude<\/h3>\n<p>Life in the colonies proved harsh, however. Indentured servants could not marry, and they were subject to the will of the tobacco planters who bought their labor contracts. If they committed a crime or disobeyed their masters, they found their terms of service lengthened, often by several years. Female indentured servants faced special dangers in what was essentially a bachelor colony. Many were exploited by unscrupulous tobacco planters who seduced them with promises of marriage. These planters would then sell their pregnant servants to other tobacco planters to avoid the costs of raising a child.<\/p>\n<p>But even the rough terms of servitude were no match for the promise of land and potential profits that beckoned ambitious and dispossessed English farmers alike. But Still, there were not enough of them. Tobacco was a labor-intensive crop and ambitious planters, with seemingly limitless land before them, lacked only laborers to exponentially escalate their wealth and status. The colony\u2019s great labor vacuum inspired the creation of the <strong>headright system\u00a0<\/strong>in 1618: any person who migrated to Virginia would automatically receive fifty acres of land and any immigrant whose passage they paid would entitle them to fifty acres more.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 270px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/883\/2015\/08\/23202134\/CNX_History_03_03_Pocahontas.jpg\" alt=\"This is a 1616 portrait of Pocahontas depicting a young woman with Indian features in traditional European dress, including a tall hat and an Elizabethan ruff, and a regal pose.\" width=\"260\" height=\"375\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. This 1616 engraving by Simon van de Passe, completed when Pocahontas and John Rolfe were presented at court in England, is the only known contemporary image of Pocahontas. Note her European garb and pose. What message did the painter likely intend to convey with this portrait of Pocahontas, the daughter of a powerful Indian chief?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>In 1619 the Virginia Company established the House of Burgesses, a limited representative body composed of white landowners that first met in Jamestown. That same year, a Dutch slave ship sold twenty Africans to the Virginia colonists. Southern slavery was born.<\/p>\n<p>Soon the tobacco-growing colonists expanded beyond the bounds of Jamestown\u2019s deadly peninsula. When it became clear that the English were not merely intent on maintaining a small trading post, but sought a permanent ever-expanding colony, conflict with the Powhatan Confederacy became almost inevitable.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-idm3375312\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm98440960\" class=\"history click-and-explore\">\n<h2 id=\"fs-idp23876144\">The Anglo-Powhatan Wars<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm23686240\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm84810096\">By choosing to settle along the rivers on the banks of the Chesapeake, the English unknowingly placed themselves at the center of the Powhatan Empire, a powerful Algonquian confederacy of thirty Native groups with perhaps as many as twenty-two thousand people. The territory of the equally impressive <span class=\"no-emphasis\">Susquehannock<\/span> people also bordered English settlements at the north end of the Chesapeake Bay.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm106926512\">Tensions ran high between the English and the Powhatan, and near-constant war prevailed. The First Anglo-Powhatan War (1609\u20131614) resulted not only from the English colonists\u2019 intrusion onto Powhatan land, but also from their refusal to follow Native protocol by giving gifts. English actions infuriated and insulted the Powhatan. In 1613, the settlers captured Pocahontas (also called Matoaka), the daughter of a Powhatan headman named Wahunsonacook, and gave her in marriage to Englishman John Rolfe. Their union, and her choice to remain with the English, helped quell the war in 1614. Pocahontas converted to Christianity, changing her name to Rebecca, and sailed with her husband and several other Powhatan to England where she was introduced to King James I. Promoters of colonization publicized Pocahontas as an example of the good work of converting the Powhatan to Christianity.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Explore the interactive exhibit <a href=\"http:\/\/www.pbs.org\/wgbh\/nova\/ancient\/images-pocahontas.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Changing Images of Pocahontas<\/a> on PBS\u2019s website to see the many ways artists have portrayed Pocahontas over the centuries.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm4053312\" class=\"history click-and-explore\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm76433088\">Peace in Virginia did not last long. The Second Anglo-Powhatan War (1620s) broke out because of the expansion of the English settlement nearly one hundred miles into the interior, and because of the continued insults and friction caused by English activities. Powhatan died in 1622 and was succeeded by his brother, Opechancanough, who promised to drive the land-hungry colonists back into the sea. He launched a surprise attack and in a single day (March 22, 1622) killed 347 colonists, or one-fourth of all the colonists in Virginia. The English responded by annihilating every Powhatan village around Jamestown and from then on became even more intolerant. The Third Anglo-Powhatan War (1644\u20131646) began with a surprise attack in which the Powhatan killed around five hundred English colonists. However, their ultimate defeat in this conflict forced the Powhatan to acknowledge the English king,\u00a0Charles I, as their sovereign. The Anglo-Powhatan Wars, spanning nearly forty years, illustrate the degree of Native resistance that resulted from English intrusion into the Powhatan confederacy.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<p>English colonists brought to the New World particular visions of racial, cultural, and religious supremacy. Despite starving in the shadow of the Powhatan Confederacy, English colonists nevertheless judged themselves physically, spiritually, and technologically superior to Native peoples in North America. Christianity, metallurgy, intensive agriculture, trans-Atlantic navigation, and even wheat all magnified the English sense of superiority. This sense of superiority, when coupled with outbreaks of violence, left the English feeling entitled to indigenous lands and resources.<\/p>\n<p>In 1622, at the dawn of the tobacco boom, Jamestown had still seemed a failure. But the rise of tobacco and the destruction of the Powhatan turned the tide. Colonists escaped the deadly peninsula and immigrants poured into the colony to grow tobacco. By 1650 over fifteen thousand colonists called Virginia home, and the colony began to turn a profit for the Crown.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_750c11ca-8827-4b5d-a673-8933ec6a66a0\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/750c11ca-8827-4b5d-a673-8933ec6a66a0?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_750c11ca-8827-4b5d-a673-8933ec6a66a0\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_e3475adf-e152-4096-a3e0-d3919755f2f1\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/e3475adf-e152-4096-a3e0-d3919755f2f1?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_e3475adf-e152-4096-a3e0-d3919755f2f1\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3>Review Question<\/h3>\n<p>How did the Chesapeake colonists solve their labor problems?<\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q316634\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q316634\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">They encouraged colonization by offering headrights to anyone who could pay his own way to Virginia: fifty acres for each passage. They also used the system of indenture, in which people (usually men) who didn\u2019t have enough money to pay their own passage could work for a set number of years and then gain their own land. Increasingly, they also turned to enslaved Africans as a cheap labor source.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div>\n<p><strong>headright system:<\/strong> a system in which parcels of land were granted to settlers who could pay their own way to Virginia, or to those who paid for others to come to Virginia<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p><strong>indenture:<\/strong> a labor contract that promised young men, and sometimes women, passage to the colonies, money, and land after they worked for a set number of years<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-1899\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sarah Franklin for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Jamestown. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: The American Yawp. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/02-colliding-cultures\/#V_Jamestown\">http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/02-colliding-cultures\/#V_Jamestown<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: American Yawp. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Desperation at Jamestown. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/2-3-challenges-to-spains-supremacy?query=george%20percy&#038;target=%7B%22type%22%3A%22search%22%2C%22index%22%3A0%7D#fs-idp93983456\">https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/2-3-challenges-to-spains-supremacy?query=george%20percy&#038;target=%7B%22type%22%3A%22search%22%2C%22index%22%3A0%7D#fs-idp93983456<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11740\/latest\/<\/li><li>English Settlements in America. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/3-3-english-settlements-in-america\">https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/3-3-english-settlements-in-america<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11740\/latest\/<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Cannibalism At Jamestown: Listening To The Bones | TIME. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Time. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/XHGI50ebhA0\">https:\/\/youtu.be\/XHGI50ebhA0<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>All Rights Reserved<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Incolarum Virginiae piscandi ratio (The Method of Fishing of the Inhabitants of Virginia), c. 1590. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Theodor de Bry after John White. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Encyclopedia Virginia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/encyclopediavirginia.org\/213hpr-c527f0b8feabb40\/\">https:\/\/encyclopediavirginia.org\/213hpr-c527f0b8feabb40\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":9,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Jamestown\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"The American Yawp\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/02-colliding-cultures\/#V_Jamestown\",\"project\":\"American Yawp\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Desperation at Jamestown\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/2-3-challenges-to-spains-supremacy?query=george%20percy&target=%7B%22type%22%3A%22search%22%2C%22index%22%3A0%7D#fs-idp93983456\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11740\/latest\/\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"English Settlements in America\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/3-3-english-settlements-in-america\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11740\/latest\/\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Cannibalism At Jamestown: Listening To The Bones | TIME\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Time\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/XHGI50ebhA0\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"arr\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Sarah Franklin for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"Incolarum Virginiae piscandi ratio (The Method of Fishing of the Inhabitants of Virginia), c. 1590\",\"author\":\"Theodor de Bry after John White\",\"organization\":\"Encyclopedia 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77c34096-0f2d-4110-8a19-da0eb504ecf0","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1899","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":1894,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1899","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":42,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1899\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":8364,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1899\/revisions\/8364"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/1894"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1899\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1899"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1899"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1899"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1899"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}