{"id":2229,"date":"2021-03-04T06:23:49","date_gmt":"2021-03-04T06:23:49","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=2229"},"modified":"2022-08-11T04:24:03","modified_gmt":"2022-08-11T04:24:03","slug":"the-war-of-1812","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/chapter\/the-war-of-1812\/","title":{"raw":"The War of 1812","rendered":"The War of 1812"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Identify the causes of the War of 1812<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe key events and turning points during the War of 1812<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Examine the political and social consequences of the War of 1812<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp28516896\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">The War of 1812 Begins<\/h2>\r\nThe British continued to harass American shipping, and Madison faced enormous pressure at home to do something to alleviate this situation, even if any action meant war. British support for Indian resistance further exacerbated the situation. Madison knew that on paper the United States was militarily no match for Great Britain. But Britain\u2019s continuing attacks on American ships fueled the calls for action from the <strong>War Hawks<\/strong> in Congress, particularly Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Madison, having done all he could to find a non-military solution, was finally pushed to call for a declaration of war\u00a0on June 1, 1812, a declaration that won Congress\u2019s subsequent approval.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"443\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/883\/2015\/08\/23202345\/CNX_History_08_04_Burned.jpg\" alt=\"A painting depicts the burned White House, which is blackened inside with smoke damage visible on its exterior.\" width=\"443\" height=\"250\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. George Munger painted The President\u2019s House shortly after the War of 1812, ca. 1814\u20131815. The painting shows the result of the British burning of Washington, DC.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn 1812, the Democratic-Republicans held 75 percent of the seats in the House and 82 percent of the Senate, giving them a free hand to set national policy. Among them were the \u201cWar Hawks,\u201d whom one historian describes as \u201ctoo young to remember the horrors of the American Revolution\u201d and thus \u201cwilling to risk another British war to vindicate the nation\u2019s rights and independence.\u201d\u00a0This group included men who would remain influential long after the War of 1812, such as Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. Opposition to the war came from Federalists, especially those in the Northeast, who knew war would disrupt the maritime trade on which they depended. In a narrow vote, Congress authorized the president to declare war against Britain in June 1812.\r\n\r\nWhile the War of 1812 contained two key players\u2014the United States and Great Britain\u2014it also drew in other groups, such as Tecumseh and his Confederacy. The war can be organized into three stages or theaters. The first, the Atlantic Theater, lasted until the spring of 1813. During this time, Great Britain was chiefly occupied in Europe against Napoleon, and the United States invaded Canada and sent their fledgling navy against British ships. During the second stage, from early 1813 to 1814, the United States launched their second offensive against Canada and the Great Lakes. In this period, the Americans won their first successes. The third stage, the Southern Theater, concluded with Andrew Jackson\u2019s January 1815 victory outside New Orleans, Louisiana.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/30403734-9fe8-4fbe-aa44-92608e9cce06\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm16032\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch it<\/h3>\r\nThe War of 1812 was fought between the United States and Britain, lasting from 1812 to 1815. The\u00a0war\u00a0changed very little for the United States and Britain, but Native Americans suffered the biggest losses: their territory was taken and Tecumseh was killed.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/qMXqg2PKJZU?t=1s\r\n\r\nYou can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/WM-US+History\/TheWarof1812CrashCourseUSHistory11.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cThe War of 1812 - Crash Course US History #11\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h2>The War Unfolds<\/h2>\r\nDuring the war, the Americans were greatly interested in Canada and the Great Lakes borderlands. In July 1812, the U.S. launched their first offensive against Canada. By August, however, the British and their allies defeated the Americans in Canada, costing the U.S. control over Detroit and parts of the Michigan Territory. By the close of 1813, the Americans recaptured Detroit, shattered the\u00a0Indian Confederacy, killed Tecumseh, and eliminated the British threat in that theater. Despite these accomplishments, the American land forces proved outmatched by their adversaries.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_601\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"777\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/British-Indians-Savage-War-of-1812.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-601 \" src=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/British-Indians-Savage-War-of-1812-1000x700.jpg\" alt=\"A British soldier making a deal with a Native American. Another Native American is scalping an American colonist.\" width=\"777\" height=\"544\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. As pictured in this 1812 political cartoon published in Philadelphia, Americans lambasted the British and their native allies for what they considered \u201csavage\u201d offenses during war, though Americans too were engaging in such heinous acts.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAfter the land campaign of 1812 failed to secure America\u2019s war aims, Americans turned to the infant navy in 1813. Privateers and the U.S. Navy rallied behind the slogan \u201cFree Trade and Sailors Rights!\u201d Although the British possessed the most powerful navy in the world, surprisingly the young American navy extracted early victories with larger, more heavily armed ships. By 1814, however, the major naval battles had been fought with little effect on the war\u2019s outcome.\r\n\r\nWith Britain\u2019s main naval fleet fighting in the Napoleonic Wars, smaller ships and armaments stationed in North America were generally no match for their American counterparts. Early on, Americans humiliated the British in single ship battles. In retaliation, Captain Phillip Broke, of the\u00a0<i>HMS Shannon <\/i>attacked the <i>USS Chesapeake <\/i>captained by James Lawrence on June 1, 1813. Within six minutes, the <i>Chesapeake <\/i>was destroyed and Lawrence was mortally wounded. Yet, the Americans did not give up as Lawrence commanded them \u201cTell the men to fire faster! Don\u2019t give up the ship!\u201d Lawrence died of his wounds three days later and although the <i>Shannon <\/i>defeated the <i>Chesapeake<\/i>, Lawrence\u2019s words became a rallying cry for the Americans.\r\n\r\nTwo and a half months later the <i>USS Constitution<\/i> squared off with the <i>HMS Guerriere<\/i>. As the <i>Guerriere <\/i>tried to outmaneuver the Americans, the <i>Constitution<\/i> pulled along broadside and began hammering the British frigate. The <i>Guerriere<\/i> returned fire, but as one sailor observed the cannonballs simply bounced off the <i>Constitution<\/i>\u2019s thick hull. \u201cHuzza! Her sides are made of iron!\u201d shouted the sailor and henceforth, the\u00a0<i>Constitution <\/i>became known as \u201cOld Ironsides.\u201d In less than thirty-five minutes, the <i>Guerriere<\/i> was so badly damaged\u00a0it was set aflame rather than taken as a prize.\r\n\r\nIn 1814, Americans gained naval victories on Lake Champlain near Plattsburgh, preventing a British land invasion of the United States, and on the Chesapeake at Fort McHenry in Baltimore. Fort McHenry repelled the nineteen-ship British fleet enduring twenty-seven hours of bombardment virtually unscathed. Watching from aboard a British ship, American poet Francis Scott Key penned the verses that\u00a0would become the national anthem, \u201cThe Star-Spangled Banner.\u201d\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Francis Scott Key\u2019s \u201cIn Defense of Fort McHenry\u201d<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm19958224\" class=\"history americana\" data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Americana\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm11891664\">After the British bombed Baltimore\u2019s Fort McHenry in 1814 but failed to overcome the U.S. forces there, Francis Scott Key was inspired by the sight of the American flag, which remained hanging proudly in the aftermath. He wrote the poem \u201cIn Defense of Fort McHenry,\u201d which was later set to the tune of a British song called \u201cThe Anacreontic Song\u201d and eventually became the U.S. national anthem, \u201cThe Star-Spangled Banner.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<blockquote id=\"fs-idp145563952\">Oh, say, can you see, by the dawn\u2019s early light,\r\nWhat so proudly we hailed at the twilight\u2019s last gleaming?\r\nWhose broad stripes and bright stars, thru the perilous fight,\r\nO\u2019er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming?\r\nAnd the rockets\u2019 red glare, the bombs bursting in air,\r\nGave proof through the night that our flag was still there.\r\nO say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave\r\nO\u2019er the land of the free and the home of the brave?\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\nOn the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep,\r\nWhere the foe\u2019s haughty host in dread silence reposes,\r\nWhat is that which the breeze, o\u2019er the towering steep,\r\nAs it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses?\r\nNow it catches the gleam of the morning\u2019s first beam,\r\nIn full glory reflected, now shines on the stream:\r\nTis the star-spangled banner: O, long may it wave\r\nO\u2019er the land of the free and the home of the brave!\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\nAnd where is that band who so vauntingly swore\r\nThat the havoc of war and the battle\u2019s confusion\r\nA home and a country should leave us no more?\r\nTheir blood has washed out their foul footsteps\u2019 pollution.\r\nNo refuge could save the hireling and slave\r\nFrom the terror of flight or the gloom of the grave:\r\nAnd the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave\r\nO\u2019er the land of the free and the home of the brave.\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\nO, thus be it ever when freemen shall stand,\r\nBetween their loved home and the war\u2019s desolation!\r\nBlest with victory and peace, may the heav\u2019n-rescued land\r\nPraise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation!\r\nThen conquer we must, when our cause it is just,\r\nAnd this be our motto: \u201cIn God is our trust\u201d\r\nAnd the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave\r\nO\u2019er the land of the free and the home of the brave!\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\n\u2014Francis Scott Key, \u201cIn Defense of Fort McHenry,\u201d 1814\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div><\/blockquote>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp111546992\">What images does Key use to describe the American spirit? Most people are familiar with only the first verse of the song; what do you think the last three verses add?<\/p>\r\nVisit the <a href=\"http:\/\/amhistory.si.edu\/starspangledbanner\/interactive-flag-html5\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Smithsonian Institute<\/a> to explore an interactive feature on the flag that inspired \u201cThe Star-Spangled Banner,\u201d where clickable \u201chot spots\u201d on the flag reveal elements of its history.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nImpressive though these accomplishments were, they belied what was actually a poorly executed military campaign against the British. The U.S. Navy won their most significant victories in the Atlantic Ocean in 1813. Napoleon\u2019s defeat in early 1814, however, allowed the British to focus on North America and their blockade of the East coast. Thanks to the blockade, the British were able to burn Washington D.C. on August 24, 1814 and open a new theater of operations in the South.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_613\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"552\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/Washington-Burning.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-613 \" src=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/Washington-Burning-1000x687.jpg\" alt=\"British soldiers advancing on a burning Washington D.C.\" width=\"552\" height=\"379\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. The artist shows Washington D.C. engulfed in flames as the British troops set fire to the city in 1813.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nFollowing the defeat of France, Britain no longer had to concern itself with stopping the United States from trade with its enemy, and pursued peace negotiations. The Treaty of Ghent ended the war and was signed in Europe on December 24, 1814. Due to slow communication, the last battle in the War of 1812 happened after the treaty\u00a0had been signed. Andrew Jackson had distinguished himself in the war by defeating the Creek Indians in March 1814 before invading Florida in May of that year. After taking Pensacola, he moved his force of Tennessee fighters to New Orleans to defend the strategic port against British attack. On January 8, 1815 (despite the official end of the war), a force of battle-tested British veterans of the Napoleonic Wars attempted to take the port. Jackson\u2019s forces devastated the British, killing over two thousand. New Orleans and the vast Mississippi River Valley had been successfully defended, ensuring the future of American settlement and commerce. The <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Battle of New Orleans<\/span> immediately catapulted Jackson to national prominence as a war hero, and in the 1820s, he emerged as the head of the new Democratic Party.\r\n<h3>The Hartford Convention<\/h3>\r\nBut not all Americans supported the war. In 1814, New England Federalists met in Hartford, Connecticut, to try to end the war and curb the power of the Democratic-Republican Party. They produced a document that proposed abolishing the three-fifths rule in the Constitution that afforded Southern slaveholders disproportionate representation in Congress, limiting the president to a single term in office, and most importantly, demanding a two-thirds congressional majority, rather than a simple majority, for legislation that declared war, admitted new states into the Union, or regulated commerce. With the two-thirds majority, New England\u2019s Federalist politicians believed they could limit the power of their political foes.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_604\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"559\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/Hartford-Convention.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-604 \" src=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/Hartford-Convention-1000x687.jpg\" alt=\"The Hartford Convention or Leap no Leap\" width=\"559\" height=\"384\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 4<\/strong>. Contemplating the possibility of secession over the War of 1812 (fueled in large part by economic interests of New England merchants), the Hartford Convention posed the possibility of disaster for the still-young United States. England, represented by the figure John Bull on the right side, is shown in this political cartoon with arms open to accept New England back into its empire.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThese proposals were sent to Washington, but unfortunately for the Federalists, the victory at New Orleans buoyed popular support for the Madison administration. With little evidence, newspapers accused the Hartford Convention\u2019s delegates of plotting secession. The episode demonstrated the waning power of Federalism and the need for the region\u2019s politicians to shed their aristocratic and Anglophile image. The next New England politician to assume the presidency, John Quincy Adams in 1824, would emerge not from within the Federalist fold, but after serving as Secretary of State under President James Monroe, the last leader of the Virginia Democratic-Republicans.\r\n<h2>After the War<\/h2>\r\nThe Treaty of Ghent essentially returned relations between the U.S. and Britain to<i> <\/i>their pre-war status. The war, however, mattered politically and strengthened American nationalism. During the war, Americans read patriotic newspaper stories, sang patriotic songs, and bought consumer goods decorated with national emblems. They also heard stories about how the British and their Native allies threatened to bring violence into American homes. For example, rumors spread that British officers promised rewards of \u201cbeauty and booty\u201d for their soldiers when they attacked New Orleans. In the Great Lakes borderlands, wartime propaganda fueled Americans' fear of Britain\u2019s Native American allies, who they believed would slaughter men, women, and children indiscriminately. Terror and love worked together to make American citizens feel a stronger bond with their country. Because the war mostly cut off America\u2019s trade with Europe, it also encouraged Americans to see themselves as different and separate; it fostered a sense that the country had been reborn.\r\n\r\nFormer treasury secretary Albert Gallatin claimed that the War of 1812 revived \u201cnational feelings\u201d that had dwindled after the Revolution. \u201cThe people,\u201d he wrote, were now \u201cmore American; they feel and act more like a nation.\u201d Politicians proposed measures to reinforce the fragile Union through capitalism and built on these sentiments of nationalism. The United States continued to expand into Indian territories with westward settlement in far-flung new states like Tennessee, Ohio, Mississippi, and Illinois. Between 1810 and 1830, the country added more than 6,000 new post offices.\r\n\r\nIn 1817, South Carolina congressman John C. Calhoun called for building projects to \u201cbind the republic together with a perfect system of roads and canals.\u201d He joined with other politicians, such as Kentucky\u2019s powerful Henry Clay, to promote what came to be called an \u201c<strong>American System<\/strong>.\u201d They aimed to make America economically independent and encouraged commerce between the states over trade with Europe and the West Indies. The American System would include a new Bank of the United States to provide capital; a high protective tariff, which would raise the prices of imported goods and help American-made products compete; and a network of \u201cinternal improvements,\u201d roads and canals to let people take American goods to market.\r\n\r\nThese projects were controversial. Many people believed they were unconstitutional or that they would increase the federal government\u2019s power at the expense of the states. Even Calhoun later changed his mind and joined the opposition. The War of 1812, however, had reinforced Americans\u2019 sense of the nation\u2019s importance in their political and economic life. Even when the federal government did not act, states created banks, roads, and canals of their own.\r\n\r\nWhat may have been the boldest declaration of America\u2019s postwar pride came in 1823. President James Monroe issued an ultimatum to the empires of Europe in order to support independence in Latin America. The \u201c<strong>Monroe Doctrine<\/strong>\u201d declared that the United States considered its entire hemisphere, both North and South America, off-limits to new European colonization. Although Monroe was a Jeffersonian, some of his principles echoed Federalist policies. Whereas Jefferson cut the size of the military and ended all internal taxes in his first term, Monroe advocated the need for a strong military and an aggressive foreign policy. Since Americans were spreading out over the continent, Monroe authorized the federal government to invest in canals and roads, which he said would \u201cshorten distances, and, by making each part more accessible to and dependent on the other\u2026shall bind the Union more closely together.\u201d As Federalists had attempted two decades earlier, Democratic-Republican leaders after the War of 1812 advocated strengthening the state in order to strengthen the nation.\r\n\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/c1134f30-3ba6-46b5-b037-bdaad26ef48a\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/a37f678b-6b35-4a2c-9f31-bdece3fd9efa\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<strong>American System<\/strong>: a<span style=\"font-family: Arial, sans-serif;\">\u00a0plan to encourage internal trade and make the United States economically independent through creation of a new Bank of the United States, a high protective tariff, and a network of roads and canals to ease the movement of goods to market<\/span>\r\n\r\n<strong>Hartford Convention<\/strong>:\u00a01814 meeting of Federalists in Hartford, Connecticut.\u00a0 Their opposition to the War of 1812 would result in Americans viewing them as traitorous and mark the end of the Federalists as a force for political action\r\n\r\n<strong>Monroe Doctrine: <\/strong>President Madison's position, put forth in 1823, and adopted by all subsequent administrations, that the Western Hemisphere was closed to new efforts at European colonization\r\n\r\n<strong>War Hawks<\/strong>: members of Congress who supported a declaration of war against Britain, culminating in the War of 1812\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Identify the causes of the War of 1812<\/li>\n<li>Describe key events and turning points during the War of 1812<\/li>\n<li>Examine the political and social consequences of the War of 1812<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-idp28516896\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">The War of 1812 Begins<\/h2>\n<p>The British continued to harass American shipping, and Madison faced enormous pressure at home to do something to alleviate this situation, even if any action meant war. British support for Indian resistance further exacerbated the situation. Madison knew that on paper the United States was militarily no match for Great Britain. But Britain\u2019s continuing attacks on American ships fueled the calls for action from the <strong>War Hawks<\/strong> in Congress, particularly Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Madison, having done all he could to find a non-military solution, was finally pushed to call for a declaration of war\u00a0on June 1, 1812, a declaration that won Congress\u2019s subsequent approval.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 453px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/883\/2015\/08\/23202345\/CNX_History_08_04_Burned.jpg\" alt=\"A painting depicts the burned White House, which is blackened inside with smoke damage visible on its exterior.\" width=\"443\" height=\"250\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. George Munger painted The President\u2019s House shortly after the War of 1812, ca. 1814\u20131815. The painting shows the result of the British burning of Washington, DC.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>In 1812, the Democratic-Republicans held 75 percent of the seats in the House and 82 percent of the Senate, giving them a free hand to set national policy. Among them were the \u201cWar Hawks,\u201d whom one historian describes as \u201ctoo young to remember the horrors of the American Revolution\u201d and thus \u201cwilling to risk another British war to vindicate the nation\u2019s rights and independence.\u201d\u00a0This group included men who would remain influential long after the War of 1812, such as Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. Opposition to the war came from Federalists, especially those in the Northeast, who knew war would disrupt the maritime trade on which they depended. In a narrow vote, Congress authorized the president to declare war against Britain in June 1812.<\/p>\n<p>While the War of 1812 contained two key players\u2014the United States and Great Britain\u2014it also drew in other groups, such as Tecumseh and his Confederacy. The war can be organized into three stages or theaters. The first, the Atlantic Theater, lasted until the spring of 1813. During this time, Great Britain was chiefly occupied in Europe against Napoleon, and the United States invaded Canada and sent their fledgling navy against British ships. During the second stage, from early 1813 to 1814, the United States launched their second offensive against Canada and the Great Lakes. In this period, the Americans won their first successes. The third stage, the Southern Theater, concluded with Andrew Jackson\u2019s January 1815 victory outside New Orleans, Louisiana.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_30403734-9fe8-4fbe-aa44-92608e9cce06\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/30403734-9fe8-4fbe-aa44-92608e9cce06?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_30403734-9fe8-4fbe-aa44-92608e9cce06\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-idm16032\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch it<\/h3>\n<p>The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and Britain, lasting from 1812 to 1815. The\u00a0war\u00a0changed very little for the United States and Britain, but Native Americans suffered the biggest losses: their territory was taken and Tecumseh was killed.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"The War of 1812 - Crash Course US History #11\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/qMXqg2PKJZU?start=1&#38;feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/WM-US+History\/TheWarof1812CrashCourseUSHistory11.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cThe War of 1812 &#8211; Crash Course US History #11\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<h2>The War Unfolds<\/h2>\n<p>During the war, the Americans were greatly interested in Canada and the Great Lakes borderlands. In July 1812, the U.S. launched their first offensive against Canada. By August, however, the British and their allies defeated the Americans in Canada, costing the U.S. control over Detroit and parts of the Michigan Territory. By the close of 1813, the Americans recaptured Detroit, shattered the\u00a0Indian Confederacy, killed Tecumseh, and eliminated the British threat in that theater. Despite these accomplishments, the American land forces proved outmatched by their adversaries.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_601\" style=\"width: 787px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/British-Indians-Savage-War-of-1812.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-601\" class=\"wp-image-601\" src=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/British-Indians-Savage-War-of-1812-1000x700.jpg\" alt=\"A British soldier making a deal with a Native American. Another Native American is scalping an American colonist.\" width=\"777\" height=\"544\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-601\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. As pictured in this 1812 political cartoon published in Philadelphia, Americans lambasted the British and their native allies for what they considered \u201csavage\u201d offenses during war, though Americans too were engaging in such heinous acts.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>After the land campaign of 1812 failed to secure America\u2019s war aims, Americans turned to the infant navy in 1813. Privateers and the U.S. Navy rallied behind the slogan \u201cFree Trade and Sailors Rights!\u201d Although the British possessed the most powerful navy in the world, surprisingly the young American navy extracted early victories with larger, more heavily armed ships. By 1814, however, the major naval battles had been fought with little effect on the war\u2019s outcome.<\/p>\n<p>With Britain\u2019s main naval fleet fighting in the Napoleonic Wars, smaller ships and armaments stationed in North America were generally no match for their American counterparts. Early on, Americans humiliated the British in single ship battles. In retaliation, Captain Phillip Broke, of the\u00a0<i>HMS Shannon <\/i>attacked the <i>USS Chesapeake <\/i>captained by James Lawrence on June 1, 1813. Within six minutes, the <i>Chesapeake <\/i>was destroyed and Lawrence was mortally wounded. Yet, the Americans did not give up as Lawrence commanded them \u201cTell the men to fire faster! Don\u2019t give up the ship!\u201d Lawrence died of his wounds three days later and although the <i>Shannon <\/i>defeated the <i>Chesapeake<\/i>, Lawrence\u2019s words became a rallying cry for the Americans.<\/p>\n<p>Two and a half months later the <i>USS Constitution<\/i> squared off with the <i>HMS Guerriere<\/i>. As the <i>Guerriere <\/i>tried to outmaneuver the Americans, the <i>Constitution<\/i> pulled along broadside and began hammering the British frigate. The <i>Guerriere<\/i> returned fire, but as one sailor observed the cannonballs simply bounced off the <i>Constitution<\/i>\u2019s thick hull. \u201cHuzza! Her sides are made of iron!\u201d shouted the sailor and henceforth, the\u00a0<i>Constitution <\/i>became known as \u201cOld Ironsides.\u201d In less than thirty-five minutes, the <i>Guerriere<\/i> was so badly damaged\u00a0it was set aflame rather than taken as a prize.<\/p>\n<p>In 1814, Americans gained naval victories on Lake Champlain near Plattsburgh, preventing a British land invasion of the United States, and on the Chesapeake at Fort McHenry in Baltimore. Fort McHenry repelled the nineteen-ship British fleet enduring twenty-seven hours of bombardment virtually unscathed. Watching from aboard a British ship, American poet Francis Scott Key penned the verses that\u00a0would become the national anthem, \u201cThe Star-Spangled Banner.\u201d<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Francis Scott Key\u2019s \u201cIn Defense of Fort McHenry\u201d<\/h3>\n<div id=\"fs-idm19958224\" class=\"history americana\" data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Americana\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm11891664\">After the British bombed Baltimore\u2019s Fort McHenry in 1814 but failed to overcome the U.S. forces there, Francis Scott Key was inspired by the sight of the American flag, which remained hanging proudly in the aftermath. He wrote the poem \u201cIn Defense of Fort McHenry,\u201d which was later set to the tune of a British song called \u201cThe Anacreontic Song\u201d and eventually became the U.S. national anthem, \u201cThe Star-Spangled Banner.\u201d<\/p>\n<blockquote id=\"fs-idp145563952\"><p>Oh, say, can you see, by the dawn\u2019s early light,<br \/>\nWhat so proudly we hailed at the twilight\u2019s last gleaming?<br \/>\nWhose broad stripes and bright stars, thru the perilous fight,<br \/>\nO\u2019er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming?<br \/>\nAnd the rockets\u2019 red glare, the bombs bursting in air,<br \/>\nGave proof through the night that our flag was still there.<br \/>\nO say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave<br \/>\nO\u2019er the land of the free and the home of the brave?<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<p>On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep,<br \/>\nWhere the foe\u2019s haughty host in dread silence reposes,<br \/>\nWhat is that which the breeze, o\u2019er the towering steep,<br \/>\nAs it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses?<br \/>\nNow it catches the gleam of the morning\u2019s first beam,<br \/>\nIn full glory reflected, now shines on the stream:<br \/>\nTis the star-spangled banner: O, long may it wave<br \/>\nO\u2019er the land of the free and the home of the brave!<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<p>And where is that band who so vauntingly swore<br \/>\nThat the havoc of war and the battle\u2019s confusion<br \/>\nA home and a country should leave us no more?<br \/>\nTheir blood has washed out their foul footsteps\u2019 pollution.<br \/>\nNo refuge could save the hireling and slave<br \/>\nFrom the terror of flight or the gloom of the grave:<br \/>\nAnd the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave<br \/>\nO\u2019er the land of the free and the home of the brave.<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<p>O, thus be it ever when freemen shall stand,<br \/>\nBetween their loved home and the war\u2019s desolation!<br \/>\nBlest with victory and peace, may the heav\u2019n-rescued land<br \/>\nPraise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation!<br \/>\nThen conquer we must, when our cause it is just,<br \/>\nAnd this be our motto: \u201cIn God is our trust\u201d<br \/>\nAnd the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave<br \/>\nO\u2019er the land of the free and the home of the brave!<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<p>\u2014Francis Scott Key, \u201cIn Defense of Fort McHenry,\u201d 1814<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p id=\"fs-idp111546992\">What images does Key use to describe the American spirit? Most people are familiar with only the first verse of the song; what do you think the last three verses add?<\/p>\n<p>Visit the <a href=\"http:\/\/amhistory.si.edu\/starspangledbanner\/interactive-flag-html5\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Smithsonian Institute<\/a> to explore an interactive feature on the flag that inspired \u201cThe Star-Spangled Banner,\u201d where clickable \u201chot spots\u201d on the flag reveal elements of its history.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Impressive though these accomplishments were, they belied what was actually a poorly executed military campaign against the British. The U.S. Navy won their most significant victories in the Atlantic Ocean in 1813. Napoleon\u2019s defeat in early 1814, however, allowed the British to focus on North America and their blockade of the East coast. Thanks to the blockade, the British were able to burn Washington D.C. on August 24, 1814 and open a new theater of operations in the South.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_613\" style=\"width: 562px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/Washington-Burning.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-613\" class=\"wp-image-613\" src=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/Washington-Burning-1000x687.jpg\" alt=\"British soldiers advancing on a burning Washington D.C.\" width=\"552\" height=\"379\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-613\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. The artist shows Washington D.C. engulfed in flames as the British troops set fire to the city in 1813.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Following the defeat of France, Britain no longer had to concern itself with stopping the United States from trade with its enemy, and pursued peace negotiations. The Treaty of Ghent ended the war and was signed in Europe on December 24, 1814. Due to slow communication, the last battle in the War of 1812 happened after the treaty\u00a0had been signed. Andrew Jackson had distinguished himself in the war by defeating the Creek Indians in March 1814 before invading Florida in May of that year. After taking Pensacola, he moved his force of Tennessee fighters to New Orleans to defend the strategic port against British attack. On January 8, 1815 (despite the official end of the war), a force of battle-tested British veterans of the Napoleonic Wars attempted to take the port. Jackson\u2019s forces devastated the British, killing over two thousand. New Orleans and the vast Mississippi River Valley had been successfully defended, ensuring the future of American settlement and commerce. The <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Battle of New Orleans<\/span> immediately catapulted Jackson to national prominence as a war hero, and in the 1820s, he emerged as the head of the new Democratic Party.<\/p>\n<h3>The Hartford Convention<\/h3>\n<p>But not all Americans supported the war. In 1814, New England Federalists met in Hartford, Connecticut, to try to end the war and curb the power of the Democratic-Republican Party. They produced a document that proposed abolishing the three-fifths rule in the Constitution that afforded Southern slaveholders disproportionate representation in Congress, limiting the president to a single term in office, and most importantly, demanding a two-thirds congressional majority, rather than a simple majority, for legislation that declared war, admitted new states into the Union, or regulated commerce. With the two-thirds majority, New England\u2019s Federalist politicians believed they could limit the power of their political foes.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_604\" style=\"width: 569px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/Hartford-Convention.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-604\" class=\"wp-image-604\" src=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/Hartford-Convention-1000x687.jpg\" alt=\"The Hartford Convention or Leap no Leap\" width=\"559\" height=\"384\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-604\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 4<\/strong>. Contemplating the possibility of secession over the War of 1812 (fueled in large part by economic interests of New England merchants), the Hartford Convention posed the possibility of disaster for the still-young United States. England, represented by the figure John Bull on the right side, is shown in this political cartoon with arms open to accept New England back into its empire.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>These proposals were sent to Washington, but unfortunately for the Federalists, the victory at New Orleans buoyed popular support for the Madison administration. With little evidence, newspapers accused the Hartford Convention\u2019s delegates of plotting secession. The episode demonstrated the waning power of Federalism and the need for the region\u2019s politicians to shed their aristocratic and Anglophile image. The next New England politician to assume the presidency, John Quincy Adams in 1824, would emerge not from within the Federalist fold, but after serving as Secretary of State under President James Monroe, the last leader of the Virginia Democratic-Republicans.<\/p>\n<h2>After the War<\/h2>\n<p>The Treaty of Ghent essentially returned relations between the U.S. and Britain to<i> <\/i>their pre-war status. The war, however, mattered politically and strengthened American nationalism. During the war, Americans read patriotic newspaper stories, sang patriotic songs, and bought consumer goods decorated with national emblems. They also heard stories about how the British and their Native allies threatened to bring violence into American homes. For example, rumors spread that British officers promised rewards of \u201cbeauty and booty\u201d for their soldiers when they attacked New Orleans. In the Great Lakes borderlands, wartime propaganda fueled Americans&#8217; fear of Britain\u2019s Native American allies, who they believed would slaughter men, women, and children indiscriminately. Terror and love worked together to make American citizens feel a stronger bond with their country. Because the war mostly cut off America\u2019s trade with Europe, it also encouraged Americans to see themselves as different and separate; it fostered a sense that the country had been reborn.<\/p>\n<p>Former treasury secretary Albert Gallatin claimed that the War of 1812 revived \u201cnational feelings\u201d that had dwindled after the Revolution. \u201cThe people,\u201d he wrote, were now \u201cmore American; they feel and act more like a nation.\u201d Politicians proposed measures to reinforce the fragile Union through capitalism and built on these sentiments of nationalism. The United States continued to expand into Indian territories with westward settlement in far-flung new states like Tennessee, Ohio, Mississippi, and Illinois. Between 1810 and 1830, the country added more than 6,000 new post offices.<\/p>\n<p>In 1817, South Carolina congressman John C. Calhoun called for building projects to \u201cbind the republic together with a perfect system of roads and canals.\u201d He joined with other politicians, such as Kentucky\u2019s powerful Henry Clay, to promote what came to be called an \u201c<strong>American System<\/strong>.\u201d They aimed to make America economically independent and encouraged commerce between the states over trade with Europe and the West Indies. The American System would include a new Bank of the United States to provide capital; a high protective tariff, which would raise the prices of imported goods and help American-made products compete; and a network of \u201cinternal improvements,\u201d roads and canals to let people take American goods to market.<\/p>\n<p>These projects were controversial. Many people believed they were unconstitutional or that they would increase the federal government\u2019s power at the expense of the states. Even Calhoun later changed his mind and joined the opposition. The War of 1812, however, had reinforced Americans\u2019 sense of the nation\u2019s importance in their political and economic life. Even when the federal government did not act, states created banks, roads, and canals of their own.<\/p>\n<p>What may have been the boldest declaration of America\u2019s postwar pride came in 1823. President James Monroe issued an ultimatum to the empires of Europe in order to support independence in Latin America. The \u201c<strong>Monroe Doctrine<\/strong>\u201d declared that the United States considered its entire hemisphere, both North and South America, off-limits to new European colonization. Although Monroe was a Jeffersonian, some of his principles echoed Federalist policies. Whereas Jefferson cut the size of the military and ended all internal taxes in his first term, Monroe advocated the need for a strong military and an aggressive foreign policy. Since Americans were spreading out over the continent, Monroe authorized the federal government to invest in canals and roads, which he said would \u201cshorten distances, and, by making each part more accessible to and dependent on the other\u2026shall bind the Union more closely together.\u201d As Federalists had attempted two decades earlier, Democratic-Republican leaders after the War of 1812 advocated strengthening the state in order to strengthen the nation.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_c1134f30-3ba6-46b5-b037-bdaad26ef48a\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/c1134f30-3ba6-46b5-b037-bdaad26ef48a?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_c1134f30-3ba6-46b5-b037-bdaad26ef48a\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_a37f678b-6b35-4a2c-9f31-bdece3fd9efa\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/a37f678b-6b35-4a2c-9f31-bdece3fd9efa?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_a37f678b-6b35-4a2c-9f31-bdece3fd9efa\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<p><strong>American System<\/strong>: a<span style=\"font-family: Arial, sans-serif;\">\u00a0plan to encourage internal trade and make the United States economically independent through creation of a new Bank of the United States, a high protective tariff, and a network of roads and canals to ease the movement of goods to market<\/span><\/p>\n<p><strong>Hartford Convention<\/strong>:\u00a01814 meeting of Federalists in Hartford, Connecticut.\u00a0 Their opposition to the War of 1812 would result in Americans viewing them as traitorous and mark the end of the Federalists as a force for political action<\/p>\n<p><strong>Monroe Doctrine: <\/strong>President Madison&#8217;s position, put forth in 1823, and adopted by all subsequent administrations, that the Western Hemisphere was closed to new efforts at European colonization<\/p>\n<p><strong>War Hawks<\/strong>: members of Congress who supported a declaration of war against Britain, culminating in the War of 1812<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-2229\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sarah Franklin for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>US History. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/8-4-the-united-states-goes-back-to-war\">https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/8-4-the-united-states-goes-back-to-war<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/1-introduction<\/li><li>Madison. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Catherine Locks, Sarah Mergel, Pamela Roseman, and Tamara Spike. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: University of North Georgia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/digitalcommons.northgeorgia.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&#038;context=books\">https:\/\/digitalcommons.northgeorgia.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&#038;context=books<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>The War of 1812. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: The American Yawp. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/07-the-early-republic\/#footnote_21_75\">http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/07-the-early-republic\/#footnote_21_75<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>The War of 1812 - Crash Course US History #11. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Crash Course. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/qMXqg2PKJZU?t=1s\">https:\/\/youtu.be\/qMXqg2PKJZU?t=1s<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>All Rights Reserved<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>A scene on the frontiers as practiced by the &#039;humane&#039; British and their u2018worthyu2019 allies. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: William Charles. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Library of Congress.. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.loc.gov\/pictures\/item\/2002708987\/\">http:\/\/www.loc.gov\/pictures\/item\/2002708987\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Capture of the City of Washington. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikimedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:%22Capture_of_the_City_of_Washington,%22_August_1814,_1814_-_NARA_-_531090.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:%22Capture_of_the_City_of_Washington,%22_August_1814,_1814_-_NARA_-_531090.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>The Hartford Convention or Leap No Leap.. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: William Charles, Jr.. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:TheHartfordConventionOrLeapNoLeap.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:TheHartfordConventionOrLeapNoLeap.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":23592,"menu_order":16,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"US History\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/8-4-the-united-states-goes-back-to-war\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/1-introduction\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"The War of 1812 - Crash Course US History #11\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Crash Course\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/qMXqg2PKJZU?t=1s\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"arr\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Madison\",\"author\":\"Catherine Locks, Sarah Mergel, Pamela Roseman, and Tamara Spike\",\"organization\":\"University of North Georgia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/digitalcommons.northgeorgia.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=books\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"The War of 1812\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"The American Yawp\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/07-the-early-republic\/#footnote_21_75\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Sarah Franklin for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"A scene on the frontiers as practiced by the \\'humane\\' British and their u2018worthyu2019 allies\",\"author\":\"William Charles\",\"organization\":\"Library of Congress.\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/www.loc.gov\/pictures\/item\/2002708987\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"Capture of the City of Washington\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikimedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:%22Capture_of_the_City_of_Washington,%22_August_1814,_1814_-_NARA_-_531090.jpg\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"The Hartford Convention or Leap No Leap.\",\"author\":\"William Charles, Jr.\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:TheHartfordConventionOrLeapNoLeap.jpg\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"84385731-a26a-4ab9-8490-a99b088cc102,4b384aa0-4879-4f6d-9e0a-4f8d1a5f717d,7025f900-7447-4136-8048-dd46665ef7d9,0089eed8-2de2-4618-a37b-c32b5c1260cd","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-2229","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":236,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2229","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/23592"}],"version-history":[{"count":35,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2229\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":8584,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2229\/revisions\/8584"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/236"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2229\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2229"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=2229"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=2229"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=2229"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}