{"id":91,"date":"2015-08-21T17:59:33","date_gmt":"2015-08-21T17:59:33","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/ushistory1os2xmaster\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=91"},"modified":"2022-10-20T13:44:49","modified_gmt":"2022-10-20T13:44:49","slug":"new-worlds-in-the-americas-labor-commerce-and-the-columbian-exchange","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory1\/chapter\/new-worlds-in-the-americas-labor-commerce-and-the-columbian-exchange\/","title":{"raw":"The Columbian Exchange","rendered":"The Columbian Exchange"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul class=\"im_orderedlist\">\r\n \t<li>Describe the theory of mercantilism and the process of commodification<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Analyze the effects of the Columbian Exchange<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe changes to Native American life following European settlement<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm31251360\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm48281584\" class=\"history click-and-explore\">\r\n<h2>Commerce in the New World<\/h2>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm19349632\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm43370640\">The economic philosophy of <strong>mercantilism<\/strong> shaped European perceptions of wealth from the 1500s to the late 1700s. Mercantilism held that only a limited amount of wealth, as measured in gold and silver bullion, existed in the world. In order to gain power, nations had to amass wealth by mining these precious raw materials from their colonial possessions. During the age of European exploration, nations employed conquest, colonization, and trade as ways to increase their share of the bounty of the New World. Mercantilists did not believe in free trade, arguing instead that the nation should control trade to create wealth. In this view, colonies existed to strengthen the colonizing nation. Mercantilists argued against allowing their nations to trade freely with other nations, because that would mean exchanging bullion for goods.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp56912928\">Spain\u2019s mercantilist ideas guided its economic policy. Every year, enslaved individuals\u00a0or Native workers loaded shipments of gold and silver aboard Spanish treasure fleets that sailed from its American colonies\u00a0for Spain. These ships groaned under the sheer weight of bullion, for the Spanish had found huge caches of silver and gold in the New World. In South America, for example, Spaniards discovered rich veins of silver ore in a mountain called Potos\u00ed and founded a settlement of the same name there. Throughout the sixteenth century, Potos\u00ed was a boomtown, attracting settlers from many nations as well as Native people from many different cultures.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm11617744\">Colonial mercantilism, which was basically a set of protectionist policies designed to benefit the nation, relied on several factors: colonies rich in raw materials, cheap labor, colonial loyalty to the home government, and control of the shipping trade. Under this system, the colonies sent their raw materials, harvested by enslaved\u00a0or Native workers, back to their mother country. The mother country sent back to the colonies finished materials of all sorts: textiles, tools, clothing. The colonists could purchase these goods <em>only<\/em> from their mother country; trade with other countries was forbidden.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp3012496\">The 1500s and early 1600s also introduced the process of <strong>commodification<\/strong> to the New World. American silver, tobacco, and other items, which were used by Native peoples for ritual purposes, became European commodities with a monetary value that could be bought and sold. Before the arrival of the Spanish, for example, the <span class=\"no-emphasis\">Inca<\/span> people of the Andes consumed <em>chicha<\/em>, a corn beer, for ritual purposes only. When the Spanish discovered chicha, they bought and traded for it, turning it into a commodity instead of a ritual substance. Commodification thus recast Native economies and spurred the process of early commercial capitalism. New World resources, from plants to animal pelts, held the promise of wealth for European imperial powers.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm17565536\">\r\n<h2>The Columbian Exchange<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm71438704\">As Europeans traversed the Atlantic, they brought with them plants, animals, and diseases that changed lives and landscapes on both sides of the ocean. These two-way exchanges between the Americas and Europe\/Africa are known collectively as the <strong>Columbian Exchange<\/strong>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_02_04_Columbian\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"561\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/883\/2015\/08\/23202116\/CNX_History_02_04_Columbian.jpg\" alt=\"A map shows the \u201cColumbian Exchange\u201d of goods and diseases. Goods include crops such as maize, potatoes, tobacco, beans, squash, peppers, cacao, cassava, and manioc traveling east as well as rye, wheat, rice, sugar, and tea traveling west. Animals such as cattle, horses, and pigs traveled westward. Diseases include syphilis, malaria, smallpox, yellow fever, and plague.\" width=\"561\" height=\"445\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. With European exploration and settlement of the New World, goods and diseases began crossing the Atlantic Ocean in both directions. This \u201cColumbian Exchange\u201d soon had global implications.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<h3 id=\"fs-idm108743152\">Sugar and Tobacco<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"260\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/883\/2015\/08\/23202144\/CNX_History_03_04_Smoker.jpg\" alt=\"A 1646 Dutch painting depicts a man seated at a table smoking a long white clay pipe with evident enjoyment.\" width=\"260\" height=\"318\" \/> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Adriaen van Ostade, a Dutch artist, painted <em>An Apothecary Smoking in an Interior<\/em> in 1646. The large European market for American tobacco strongly influenced the development of some of the American colonies.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOf all the commodities in the Atlantic World, sugar proved to be the most important. Indeed, sugar carried the same economic importance as oil does today. European rivals raced to create sugar plantations in the Americas and fought wars for control of some of the best sugar production areas. Although refined sugar was available in the Old World, Europe\u2019s harsher climate made <strong>sugarcane<\/strong> difficult to grow, and it was not plentiful. Columbus brought sugar to Hispaniola in 1493, and the new crop was growing there by the end of the 1490s. By the first decades of the 1500s, the Spanish were building sugar mills on the island. Over the next century of colonization, Caribbean islands and most other tropical areas became centers of sugar production.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm64666960\">Though of secondary importance to sugar, tobacco achieved great value for Europeans as a cash crop as well. Native peoples had been growing it for medicinal and ritual purposes for centuries before European contact, smoking it in pipes or powdering it to use as snuff. They believed tobacco could improve concentration and enhance wisdom. To some, its use meant achieving an entranced, altered, or divine state\u2014entering a spiritual place.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm37217744\">Tobacco was unknown in Europe before 1492, and it carried a negative stigma at first. The early Spanish explorers considered Natives\u2019 use of tobacco to be proof of their savagery and, because of the fire and smoke produced in the consumption of tobacco, evidence of the Devil\u2019s sway in the New World. Gradually, however, European colonists became accustomed to and even took up the habit of smoking, and they brought it across the Atlantic. As did the Indians, Europeans ascribed medicinal properties to tobacco, claiming that it could cure headaches and skin irritations. Even so, Europeans did not import tobacco in great quantities until the 1590s. At that time, it became the first truly global commodity; English, French, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese colonists all grew it for the world market.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Chocolate<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm71075664\">Native peoples also introduced Europeans to chocolate, made from cacao seeds and used by the Aztec in Mesoamerica as currency. Mesoamerican Indians consumed unsweetened chocolate in a drink with chili peppers, vanilla, and a spice called achiote. This chocolate drink\u2014<em>xocolatl<\/em>\u2014was part of ritual ceremonies like marriage and an everyday item for those who could afford it. Chocolate contains theobromine, a stimulant, which may be why Native people believed it brought them closer to the sacred world.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm54251504\">Spaniards in the New World considered drinking chocolate a vile practice; one called chocolate \u201cthe Devil\u2019s vomit.\u201d In time, however, they introduced the beverage to Spain. At first, chocolate was available only in the Spanish court, where the elite mixed it with sugar and other spices. Later, as its availability spread, chocolate gained a reputation as a love potion.<\/p>\r\nThe crossing of the Atlantic by plants like cacao and tobacco illustrates the ways in which the discovery of the New World changed the habits and behaviors of Europeans. Europeans changed the New World in turn, not least by bringing Old World animals to the Americas. On his second voyage, Christopher Columbus brought pigs, horses, cows, and chickens to the islands of the Caribbean. Later explorers followed suit, introducing new animals or reintroducing ones that had died out (like horses). With less vulnerability to disease, these animals often fared better than humans in their new home, thriving both in the wild and in domestication.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"260\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/883\/2015\/08\/23202143\/CNX_History_03_04_Sloane.jpg\" alt=\"The cover of Sir Hans Sloane\u2019s catalog of the flora of the New World is shown. The title begins, \u201cVoyage to the Islands Madera, Barbadoes, Nieves, St. Christophers, and Jamaica; with the Natural History of the Herbs and Trees, Four-footed Beasts, Fishes, Birds, Insects, Reptiles, &amp;c., Of the last of those Islands.\u201d\" width=\"260\" height=\"469\" \/> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. English naturalist Sir Hans Sloane traveled to Jamaica and other Caribbean islands to catalog the flora of the new world.[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"fs-idm73036784\">Plants and Medicines<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm111438816\">Just as pharmaceutical companies today scour the natural world for new drugs, Europeans traveled to America to discover new medicines. The task of cataloging the new plants found there helped give birth to the science of botany. Early botanists included the English naturalist Sir Hans Sloane, who traveled to Jamaica in 1687 and there recorded hundreds of new plants. Sloane also helped popularize the drinking of chocolate, made from the cacao bean, in England.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm79943344\">Indians, who possessed a vast understanding of local New World plants and their properties, would have been a rich source of information for those European botanists seeking to find and catalog potentially useful plants. Enslaved Africans, who had a tradition of the use of medicinal plants in their Native land, adapted to their new surroundings by learning the use of New World plants through experimentation or from the Native inhabitants. Native peoples and Africans employed their knowledge effectively within their own communities. One notable example was the use of the peacock flower to induce abortions: Indian and enslaved African women living in oppressive colonial regimes are said to have used this herb to prevent the birth of children into slavery. Europeans distrusted medical knowledge that came from African or Native sources, however, and thus lost the benefit of this source of information.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Animals<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm30832336\">Europeans encountered New World animals as well. Because European Christians understood the world as a place of warfare between God and Satan, many believed the Americas, which lacked Christianity, were home to the Devil and his minions. The exotic, sometimes bizarre, appearances and habits of animals in the Americas that were previously unknown to Europeans, such as manatees, sloths, and poisonous snakes, confirmed this association. Over time, however, they began to rely more on observation of the natural world than solely on scripture. This shift\u2014from seeing the Bible as the source of all received wisdom to trusting observation or empiricism\u2014is one of the major outcomes of the era of early globalization.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm17565536\"><section id=\"fs-idm47837824\">\r\n<h2>The Introduction of Disease<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"390\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/883\/2015\/08\/23202118\/CNX_History_02_04_Smallpox.jpg\" alt=\"A drawing shows five depictions of an Aztec smallpox victim. The victim, who is covered with spots, is shown sleeping, vomiting, and being examined by a healer.\" width=\"390\" height=\"284\" \/> <strong>Figure 4.\u00a0<\/strong>This sixteenth-century Aztec drawing shows the suffering of a typical victim of smallpox. Smallpox and other contagious diseases brought by European explorers decimated Indian populations in the Americas.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm20017328\">Perhaps European colonization\u2019s single greatest impact on the North American environment was the introduction of disease. Microbes to which Indigenous inhabitants had no immunity led to death everywhere Europeans settled. Along the New England coast between 1616 and 1618, epidemics claimed the lives of 75 percent of the Native people. In the 1630s, half the Huron and Iroquois around the Great Lakes died of <strong>smallpox<\/strong>. As is often the case with disease, the very young and the very old were the most vulnerable and had the highest mortality rates. The loss of the older generation meant the loss of knowledge and tradition, while the death of children only compounded the trauma, creating devastating implications for future generations.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm126638816\">In eastern North America, some Indigenous peoples interpreted death from disease as a hostile act. Some groups, including the Iroquois, engaged in raids or \u201c<strong>mourning wars<\/strong>,\u201d taking enemy prisoners in order to assuage their grief and replace the departed. In a special ritual, the prisoners were \u201crequickened\u201d\u2014assigned the identity of a dead person\u2014and adopted by the bereaved family to take the place of their dead. As the toll from disease rose, mourning wars intensified and expanded.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>WAtch It<\/h3>\r\nThis video explains the significance of the Colombian Exchange.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=6771098&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=5FpPpn086eI&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-n5yrea79-5FpPpn086eI\" width=\"800px\" height=\"450px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\nYou can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/WM-US+History\/ColumbianExchangetranscript.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cColumbian Exchange\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-idm23375984\" class=\"review-questions\"><\/section><section id=\"fs-idp18444800\" class=\"critical-thinking\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/8b3ab7e6-63c8-411d-8761-733c3d5cdf38\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/eab84383-495d-48ff-ab11-4a330542341f\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"fs-idp16745120\">Changes to Native American Life<\/h2>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp12312288\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp42863328\">While the Americas remained firmly under the control of Native peoples in the first decades of European settlement, conflict increased as colonization spread and Europeans placed greater demands upon the Native populations, including expecting them to convert to Christianity (either Catholicism or Protestantism). Throughout the seventeenth century, the still-powerful Native peoples and confederacies that retained control of the land waged war against the invading Europeans, achieving a degree of success in their effort to drive the newcomers from the continent.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm9028816\">At the same time, European goods had begun to change Indian life radically. In the 1500s, some of the earliest objects Europeans introduced to Indians were glass beads, copper kettles, and metal utensils. Native people often adapted these items for their own use. For example, some cut up copper kettles and refashioned the metal for other uses, including jewelry that conferred status on the wearer, who was seen as connected to the new European source of raw materials.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>European Goods in Native Communities<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp45374576\">As European settlements grew throughout the 1600s, European goods flooded Native communities. Soon Native people were using these items for the same purposes as the Europeans. For example, many Native inhabitants abandoned their animal-skin clothing in favor of European textiles. Similarly, clay cookware gave way to metal cooking implements, and Indians found that European flint and steel made starting fires much easier.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_03_04_Ninigret\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"260\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/883\/2015\/08\/23202142\/CNX_History_03_04_Ninigret.jpg\" alt=\"A 1681 painting depicts Niantic-Narragansett chief Ninigret. He wears what appear to be animal-skin footwear and loincloth, along with a patterned fabric headband, a fabric cloak, and a necklace that includes a round metallic piece.\" width=\"260\" height=\"290\" \/> <strong>Figure 5<\/strong>. In this 1681 portrait, the Niantic-Narragansett chief Ninigret wears a combination of European and Indian goods. Which elements of each culture are evident in this portrait?[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp5301872\">The abundance of European goods gave rise to new artistic objects. For example, iron awls made the creation of shell beads among the Native people of the Eastern Woodlands much easier, and the result was an astonishing increase in the production of wampum, shell beads used in ceremonies and as jewelry and currency. Native peoples had always placed goods in the graves of their departed, and this practice escalated with the arrival of European goods. Archaeologists have found enormous caches of European trade goods in the graves of Indians on the East Coast.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm1254064\">Native weapons changed dramatically as well, creating an arms race among the peoples living in European colonization zones. Indians refashioned European brassware into arrow points and turned axes used for chopping wood into weapons. The most prized piece of European weaponry to obtain was a <strong>musket<\/strong>, or light, long-barreled European gun. In order to trade with Europeans for these, Native peoples intensified their harvesting of beaver, commercializing their traditional practice.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp68789840\">The influx of European materials made warfare more lethal and changed traditional patterns of authority among tribes. Formerly weaker groups, if they had access to European metal and weapons, suddenly gained the upper hand against once-dominant groups. The Algonquian, for instance, traded with the French for muskets and gained power against their enemies, the Iroquois. Eventually, Native peoples also used their new weapons against the European colonizers who had provided them.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Interactive<\/h3>\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/content\/1291462895570370678\/embed\" width=\"1088\" height=\"637\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><script src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/js\/h5p-resizer.js\" charset=\"UTF-8\"><\/script>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp8201328\">\r\n<h3>Environmental Changes<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm50234448\">The European presence in America spurred countless changes in the environment, setting into motion chains of events that affected native people as well as animals. The popularity of beaver-trimmed hats in Europe, coupled with Indians\u2019 desire for European weapons, led to the overhunting of beaver in the Northeast. Soon, beavers were extinct in New England, New York, and other areas. With their loss came the loss of beaver ponds, which had served as habitats for fish as well as water sources for deer, moose, and other animals. Furthermore, Europeans introduced pigs, which they allowed to forage in forests and other wildlands. Pigs consumed the foods on which deer and other indigenous species depended, resulting in scarcity of the game Native peoples had traditionally hunted.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm43582672\">European ideas about owning land as private property clashed with Natives tribes\u2019 understanding of land use. Indigenous peoples did not believe in private ownership of land; instead, they viewed land as a resource to be held in common for the benefit of the group. The European idea of <strong>usufruct<\/strong>\u2014the right to common land use and enjoyment\u2014comes close to the Native understanding, but colonists did not practice usufruct widely in America. Colonizers established fields, fences, and other means of demarcating private property. Native peoples who moved seasonally to take advantage of natural resources now found areas off limits, claimed by colonizers because of their insistence on private-property rights.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm47837824\"><\/section><section id=\"fs-idm101122112\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/241e90d5-acb6-4c4d-bdc3-94937065f3c7\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3>Review Questions<\/h3>\r\n<section>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>How did European muskets change life for Native peoples in the Americas?\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"971760\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"971760\"]European guns started an arms race among Indian groups. Tribes with ties to Europeans had a distinct advantage in wars with other tribes because muskets were so much more effective than bows and arrows. Guns changed the balance of power among different groups and tribes and made combat more deadly.[\/hidden-answer]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Compare and contrast European and Indian views on property.\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"56653\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"56653\"]Indians didn\u2019t have any concept of owning personal property and believed that land should be held in common, for use by a group. They used land as they needed, often moving from area to area to follow food sources at different times of year. Europeans saw land as something individuals could own, and they used fences and other markers to define their property.[\/hidden-answer]<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n<strong>Columbian Exchange:\u00a0<\/strong>the movement of plants, animals, and diseases across the Atlantic due to European exploration of the Americas\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n<strong>commodification:\u00a0<\/strong>the transformation of something\u2014for example, an item of ritual significance\u2014into a commodity with monetary value\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n<strong>mercantilism:<\/strong> the protectionist economic principle that nations should control trade with their colonies to ensure a favorable balance of trade\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n<strong>mourning wars:<\/strong> raids or wars that tribes waged in eastern North America in order to replace members lost to smallpox and other diseases\r\n\r\n<strong>musket:\u00a0<\/strong>a light, long-barreled European gun\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n<strong>smallpox:<\/strong> a disease that Europeans accidentally brought to the New World, killing millions of Indians, who had no immunity to the disease\r\n\r\n<strong>sugarcane:<\/strong> one of the primary crops of the Americas, which required a tremendous amount of labor to cultivate\r\n\r\n<strong>usufruct: <\/strong>a European right to common land use and enjoyment that was not widely practiced in the Americas\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul class=\"im_orderedlist\">\n<li>Describe the theory of mercantilism and the process of commodification<\/li>\n<li>Analyze the effects of the Columbian Exchange<\/li>\n<li>Describe changes to Native American life following European settlement<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-idm31251360\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm48281584\" class=\"history click-and-explore\">\n<h2>Commerce in the New World<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm19349632\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm43370640\">The economic philosophy of <strong>mercantilism<\/strong> shaped European perceptions of wealth from the 1500s to the late 1700s. Mercantilism held that only a limited amount of wealth, as measured in gold and silver bullion, existed in the world. In order to gain power, nations had to amass wealth by mining these precious raw materials from their colonial possessions. During the age of European exploration, nations employed conquest, colonization, and trade as ways to increase their share of the bounty of the New World. Mercantilists did not believe in free trade, arguing instead that the nation should control trade to create wealth. In this view, colonies existed to strengthen the colonizing nation. Mercantilists argued against allowing their nations to trade freely with other nations, because that would mean exchanging bullion for goods.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp56912928\">Spain\u2019s mercantilist ideas guided its economic policy. Every year, enslaved individuals\u00a0or Native workers loaded shipments of gold and silver aboard Spanish treasure fleets that sailed from its American colonies\u00a0for Spain. These ships groaned under the sheer weight of bullion, for the Spanish had found huge caches of silver and gold in the New World. In South America, for example, Spaniards discovered rich veins of silver ore in a mountain called Potos\u00ed and founded a settlement of the same name there. Throughout the sixteenth century, Potos\u00ed was a boomtown, attracting settlers from many nations as well as Native people from many different cultures.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm11617744\">Colonial mercantilism, which was basically a set of protectionist policies designed to benefit the nation, relied on several factors: colonies rich in raw materials, cheap labor, colonial loyalty to the home government, and control of the shipping trade. Under this system, the colonies sent their raw materials, harvested by enslaved\u00a0or Native workers, back to their mother country. The mother country sent back to the colonies finished materials of all sorts: textiles, tools, clothing. The colonists could purchase these goods <em>only<\/em> from their mother country; trade with other countries was forbidden.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp3012496\">The 1500s and early 1600s also introduced the process of <strong>commodification<\/strong> to the New World. American silver, tobacco, and other items, which were used by Native peoples for ritual purposes, became European commodities with a monetary value that could be bought and sold. Before the arrival of the Spanish, for example, the <span class=\"no-emphasis\">Inca<\/span> people of the Andes consumed <em>chicha<\/em>, a corn beer, for ritual purposes only. When the Spanish discovered chicha, they bought and traded for it, turning it into a commodity instead of a ritual substance. Commodification thus recast Native economies and spurred the process of early commercial capitalism. New World resources, from plants to animal pelts, held the promise of wealth for European imperial powers.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm17565536\">\n<h2>The Columbian Exchange<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm71438704\">As Europeans traversed the Atlantic, they brought with them plants, animals, and diseases that changed lives and landscapes on both sides of the ocean. These two-way exchanges between the Americas and Europe\/Africa are known collectively as the <strong>Columbian Exchange<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_02_04_Columbian\">\n<div style=\"width: 571px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/883\/2015\/08\/23202116\/CNX_History_02_04_Columbian.jpg\" alt=\"A map shows the \u201cColumbian Exchange\u201d of goods and diseases. Goods include crops such as maize, potatoes, tobacco, beans, squash, peppers, cacao, cassava, and manioc traveling east as well as rye, wheat, rice, sugar, and tea traveling west. Animals such as cattle, horses, and pigs traveled westward. Diseases include syphilis, malaria, smallpox, yellow fever, and plague.\" width=\"561\" height=\"445\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. With European exploration and settlement of the New World, goods and diseases began crossing the Atlantic Ocean in both directions. This \u201cColumbian Exchange\u201d soon had global implications.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"fs-idm108743152\">Sugar and Tobacco<\/h3>\n<div style=\"width: 270px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/883\/2015\/08\/23202144\/CNX_History_03_04_Smoker.jpg\" alt=\"A 1646 Dutch painting depicts a man seated at a table smoking a long white clay pipe with evident enjoyment.\" width=\"260\" height=\"318\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Adriaen van Ostade, a Dutch artist, painted <em>An Apothecary Smoking in an Interior<\/em> in 1646. The large European market for American tobacco strongly influenced the development of some of the American colonies.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Of all the commodities in the Atlantic World, sugar proved to be the most important. Indeed, sugar carried the same economic importance as oil does today. European rivals raced to create sugar plantations in the Americas and fought wars for control of some of the best sugar production areas. Although refined sugar was available in the Old World, Europe\u2019s harsher climate made <strong>sugarcane<\/strong> difficult to grow, and it was not plentiful. Columbus brought sugar to Hispaniola in 1493, and the new crop was growing there by the end of the 1490s. By the first decades of the 1500s, the Spanish were building sugar mills on the island. Over the next century of colonization, Caribbean islands and most other tropical areas became centers of sugar production.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm64666960\">Though of secondary importance to sugar, tobacco achieved great value for Europeans as a cash crop as well. Native peoples had been growing it for medicinal and ritual purposes for centuries before European contact, smoking it in pipes or powdering it to use as snuff. They believed tobacco could improve concentration and enhance wisdom. To some, its use meant achieving an entranced, altered, or divine state\u2014entering a spiritual place.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm37217744\">Tobacco was unknown in Europe before 1492, and it carried a negative stigma at first. The early Spanish explorers considered Natives\u2019 use of tobacco to be proof of their savagery and, because of the fire and smoke produced in the consumption of tobacco, evidence of the Devil\u2019s sway in the New World. Gradually, however, European colonists became accustomed to and even took up the habit of smoking, and they brought it across the Atlantic. As did the Indians, Europeans ascribed medicinal properties to tobacco, claiming that it could cure headaches and skin irritations. Even so, Europeans did not import tobacco in great quantities until the 1590s. At that time, it became the first truly global commodity; English, French, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese colonists all grew it for the world market.<\/p>\n<h3>Chocolate<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm71075664\">Native peoples also introduced Europeans to chocolate, made from cacao seeds and used by the Aztec in Mesoamerica as currency. Mesoamerican Indians consumed unsweetened chocolate in a drink with chili peppers, vanilla, and a spice called achiote. This chocolate drink\u2014<em>xocolatl<\/em>\u2014was part of ritual ceremonies like marriage and an everyday item for those who could afford it. Chocolate contains theobromine, a stimulant, which may be why Native people believed it brought them closer to the sacred world.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm54251504\">Spaniards in the New World considered drinking chocolate a vile practice; one called chocolate \u201cthe Devil\u2019s vomit.\u201d In time, however, they introduced the beverage to Spain. At first, chocolate was available only in the Spanish court, where the elite mixed it with sugar and other spices. Later, as its availability spread, chocolate gained a reputation as a love potion.<\/p>\n<p>The crossing of the Atlantic by plants like cacao and tobacco illustrates the ways in which the discovery of the New World changed the habits and behaviors of Europeans. Europeans changed the New World in turn, not least by bringing Old World animals to the Americas. On his second voyage, Christopher Columbus brought pigs, horses, cows, and chickens to the islands of the Caribbean. Later explorers followed suit, introducing new animals or reintroducing ones that had died out (like horses). With less vulnerability to disease, these animals often fared better than humans in their new home, thriving both in the wild and in domestication.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 270px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/883\/2015\/08\/23202143\/CNX_History_03_04_Sloane.jpg\" alt=\"The cover of Sir Hans Sloane\u2019s catalog of the flora of the New World is shown. The title begins, \u201cVoyage to the Islands Madera, Barbadoes, Nieves, St. Christophers, and Jamaica; with the Natural History of the Herbs and Trees, Four-footed Beasts, Fishes, Birds, Insects, Reptiles, &amp;c., Of the last of those Islands.\u201d\" width=\"260\" height=\"469\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. English naturalist Sir Hans Sloane traveled to Jamaica and other Caribbean islands to catalog the flora of the new world.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3 id=\"fs-idm73036784\">Plants and Medicines<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm111438816\">Just as pharmaceutical companies today scour the natural world for new drugs, Europeans traveled to America to discover new medicines. The task of cataloging the new plants found there helped give birth to the science of botany. Early botanists included the English naturalist Sir Hans Sloane, who traveled to Jamaica in 1687 and there recorded hundreds of new plants. Sloane also helped popularize the drinking of chocolate, made from the cacao bean, in England.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm79943344\">Indians, who possessed a vast understanding of local New World plants and their properties, would have been a rich source of information for those European botanists seeking to find and catalog potentially useful plants. Enslaved Africans, who had a tradition of the use of medicinal plants in their Native land, adapted to their new surroundings by learning the use of New World plants through experimentation or from the Native inhabitants. Native peoples and Africans employed their knowledge effectively within their own communities. One notable example was the use of the peacock flower to induce abortions: Indian and enslaved African women living in oppressive colonial regimes are said to have used this herb to prevent the birth of children into slavery. Europeans distrusted medical knowledge that came from African or Native sources, however, and thus lost the benefit of this source of information.<\/p>\n<h3>Animals<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm30832336\">Europeans encountered New World animals as well. Because European Christians understood the world as a place of warfare between God and Satan, many believed the Americas, which lacked Christianity, were home to the Devil and his minions. The exotic, sometimes bizarre, appearances and habits of animals in the Americas that were previously unknown to Europeans, such as manatees, sloths, and poisonous snakes, confirmed this association. Over time, however, they began to rely more on observation of the natural world than solely on scripture. This shift\u2014from seeing the Bible as the source of all received wisdom to trusting observation or empiricism\u2014is one of the major outcomes of the era of early globalization.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm17565536\">\n<section id=\"fs-idm47837824\">\n<h2>The Introduction of Disease<\/h2>\n<div style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/883\/2015\/08\/23202118\/CNX_History_02_04_Smallpox.jpg\" alt=\"A drawing shows five depictions of an Aztec smallpox victim. The victim, who is covered with spots, is shown sleeping, vomiting, and being examined by a healer.\" width=\"390\" height=\"284\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 4.\u00a0<\/strong>This sixteenth-century Aztec drawing shows the suffering of a typical victim of smallpox. Smallpox and other contagious diseases brought by European explorers decimated Indian populations in the Americas.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm20017328\">Perhaps European colonization\u2019s single greatest impact on the North American environment was the introduction of disease. Microbes to which Indigenous inhabitants had no immunity led to death everywhere Europeans settled. Along the New England coast between 1616 and 1618, epidemics claimed the lives of 75 percent of the Native people. In the 1630s, half the Huron and Iroquois around the Great Lakes died of <strong>smallpox<\/strong>. As is often the case with disease, the very young and the very old were the most vulnerable and had the highest mortality rates. The loss of the older generation meant the loss of knowledge and tradition, while the death of children only compounded the trauma, creating devastating implications for future generations.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm126638816\">In eastern North America, some Indigenous peoples interpreted death from disease as a hostile act. Some groups, including the Iroquois, engaged in raids or \u201c<strong>mourning wars<\/strong>,\u201d taking enemy prisoners in order to assuage their grief and replace the departed. In a special ritual, the prisoners were \u201crequickened\u201d\u2014assigned the identity of a dead person\u2014and adopted by the bereaved family to take the place of their dead. As the toll from disease rose, mourning wars intensified and expanded.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>WAtch It<\/h3>\n<p>This video explains the significance of the Colombian Exchange.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=6771098&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=5FpPpn086eI&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-n5yrea79-5FpPpn086eI\" width=\"800px\" height=\"450px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/WM-US+History\/ColumbianExchangetranscript.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cColumbian Exchange\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm23375984\" class=\"review-questions\"><\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp18444800\" class=\"critical-thinking\">\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_8b3ab7e6-63c8-411d-8761-733c3d5cdf38\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/8b3ab7e6-63c8-411d-8761-733c3d5cdf38?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_8b3ab7e6-63c8-411d-8761-733c3d5cdf38\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_eab84383-495d-48ff-ab11-4a330542341f\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/eab84383-495d-48ff-ab11-4a330542341f?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_eab84383-495d-48ff-ab11-4a330542341f\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"fs-idp16745120\">Changes to Native American Life<\/h2>\n<section id=\"fs-idp12312288\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp42863328\">While the Americas remained firmly under the control of Native peoples in the first decades of European settlement, conflict increased as colonization spread and Europeans placed greater demands upon the Native populations, including expecting them to convert to Christianity (either Catholicism or Protestantism). Throughout the seventeenth century, the still-powerful Native peoples and confederacies that retained control of the land waged war against the invading Europeans, achieving a degree of success in their effort to drive the newcomers from the continent.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm9028816\">At the same time, European goods had begun to change Indian life radically. In the 1500s, some of the earliest objects Europeans introduced to Indians were glass beads, copper kettles, and metal utensils. Native people often adapted these items for their own use. For example, some cut up copper kettles and refashioned the metal for other uses, including jewelry that conferred status on the wearer, who was seen as connected to the new European source of raw materials.<\/p>\n<h3>European Goods in Native Communities<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp45374576\">As European settlements grew throughout the 1600s, European goods flooded Native communities. Soon Native people were using these items for the same purposes as the Europeans. For example, many Native inhabitants abandoned their animal-skin clothing in favor of European textiles. Similarly, clay cookware gave way to metal cooking implements, and Indians found that European flint and steel made starting fires much easier.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_03_04_Ninigret\">\n<div style=\"width: 270px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/883\/2015\/08\/23202142\/CNX_History_03_04_Ninigret.jpg\" alt=\"A 1681 painting depicts Niantic-Narragansett chief Ninigret. He wears what appear to be animal-skin footwear and loincloth, along with a patterned fabric headband, a fabric cloak, and a necklace that includes a round metallic piece.\" width=\"260\" height=\"290\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 5<\/strong>. In this 1681 portrait, the Niantic-Narragansett chief Ninigret wears a combination of European and Indian goods. Which elements of each culture are evident in this portrait?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"fs-idp5301872\">The abundance of European goods gave rise to new artistic objects. For example, iron awls made the creation of shell beads among the Native people of the Eastern Woodlands much easier, and the result was an astonishing increase in the production of wampum, shell beads used in ceremonies and as jewelry and currency. Native peoples had always placed goods in the graves of their departed, and this practice escalated with the arrival of European goods. Archaeologists have found enormous caches of European trade goods in the graves of Indians on the East Coast.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm1254064\">Native weapons changed dramatically as well, creating an arms race among the peoples living in European colonization zones. Indians refashioned European brassware into arrow points and turned axes used for chopping wood into weapons. The most prized piece of European weaponry to obtain was a <strong>musket<\/strong>, or light, long-barreled European gun. In order to trade with Europeans for these, Native peoples intensified their harvesting of beaver, commercializing their traditional practice.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp68789840\">The influx of European materials made warfare more lethal and changed traditional patterns of authority among tribes. Formerly weaker groups, if they had access to European metal and weapons, suddenly gained the upper hand against once-dominant groups. The Algonquian, for instance, traded with the French for muskets and gained power against their enemies, the Iroquois. Eventually, Native peoples also used their new weapons against the European colonizers who had provided them.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Interactive<\/h3>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/content\/1291462895570370678\/embed\" width=\"1088\" height=\"637\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><script src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/js\/h5p-resizer.js\" charset=\"UTF-8\"><\/script><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp8201328\">\n<h3>Environmental Changes<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm50234448\">The European presence in America spurred countless changes in the environment, setting into motion chains of events that affected native people as well as animals. The popularity of beaver-trimmed hats in Europe, coupled with Indians\u2019 desire for European weapons, led to the overhunting of beaver in the Northeast. Soon, beavers were extinct in New England, New York, and other areas. With their loss came the loss of beaver ponds, which had served as habitats for fish as well as water sources for deer, moose, and other animals. Furthermore, Europeans introduced pigs, which they allowed to forage in forests and other wildlands. Pigs consumed the foods on which deer and other indigenous species depended, resulting in scarcity of the game Native peoples had traditionally hunted.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm43582672\">European ideas about owning land as private property clashed with Natives tribes\u2019 understanding of land use. Indigenous peoples did not believe in private ownership of land; instead, they viewed land as a resource to be held in common for the benefit of the group. The European idea of <strong>usufruct<\/strong>\u2014the right to common land use and enjoyment\u2014comes close to the Native understanding, but colonists did not practice usufruct widely in America. Colonizers established fields, fences, and other means of demarcating private property. Native peoples who moved seasonally to take advantage of natural resources now found areas off limits, claimed by colonizers because of their insistence on private-property rights.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-idm47837824\"><\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm101122112\">\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_241e90d5-acb6-4c4d-bdc3-94937065f3c7\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/241e90d5-acb6-4c4d-bdc3-94937065f3c7?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_241e90d5-acb6-4c4d-bdc3-94937065f3c7\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3>Review Questions<\/h3>\n<section>\n<ul>\n<li>How did European muskets change life for Native peoples in the Americas?\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q971760\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q971760\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">European guns started an arms race among Indian groups. Tribes with ties to Europeans had a distinct advantage in wars with other tribes because muskets were so much more effective than bows and arrows. Guns changed the balance of power among different groups and tribes and made combat more deadly.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>Compare and contrast European and Indian views on property.\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q56653\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q56653\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">Indians didn\u2019t have any concept of owning personal property and believed that land should be held in common, for use by a group. They used land as they needed, often moving from area to area to follow food sources at different times of year. Europeans saw land as something individuals could own, and they used fences and other markers to define their property.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div>\n<p><strong>Columbian Exchange:\u00a0<\/strong>the movement of plants, animals, and diseases across the Atlantic due to European exploration of the Americas<\/p>\n<div>\n<p><strong>commodification:\u00a0<\/strong>the transformation of something\u2014for example, an item of ritual significance\u2014into a commodity with monetary value<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<div>\n<p><strong>mercantilism:<\/strong> the protectionist economic principle that nations should control trade with their colonies to ensure a favorable balance of trade<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<p><strong>mourning wars:<\/strong> raids or wars that tribes waged in eastern North America in order to replace members lost to smallpox and other diseases<\/p>\n<p><strong>musket:\u00a0<\/strong>a light, long-barreled European gun<\/p>\n<div>\n<p><strong>smallpox:<\/strong> a disease that Europeans accidentally brought to the New World, killing millions of Indians, who had no immunity to the disease<\/p>\n<p><strong>sugarcane:<\/strong> one of the primary crops of the Americas, which required a tremendous amount of labor to cultivate<\/p>\n<p><strong>usufruct: <\/strong>a European right to common land use and enjoyment that was not widely practiced in the Americas<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-91\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sarah Franklin for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Indigenous Lands Interactive. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Lillian Wills for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>US History. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: P. Scott Corbett, Volker  Janssen, John M. Lund,  Todd Pfannestiel, Paul Vickery, and Sylvie Waskiewicz. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/3-4-the-impact-of-colonization\">https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/3-4-the-impact-of-colonization<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11740\/latest\/<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Columbian Exchange. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: NBC News Learn. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?time_continue=3&#038;v=5FpPpn086eI&#038;feature=emb_logo\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?time_continue=3&#038;v=5FpPpn086eI&#038;feature=emb_logo<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":969,"menu_order":13,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"US History\",\"author\":\"P. Scott Corbett, Volker  Janssen, John M. 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