The Challenge of Declaring War

Despite its name, the Spanish-American War had less to do with foreign affairs between the United States and Spain than it did with Spanish control over Cuba and other possessions in the Far East. Spain had dominated Central and South America since the late fifteenth century. But by 1890 the only Spanish colonies that had not yet acquired their independence were Cuba and Puerto Rico. On several occasions prior to the war, Cuban independence fighters in the Cuba Libre movement had attempted unsuccessfully to end Spanish control of their lands. In 1895, a similar revolt for independence erupted in Cuba; again, Spanish forces under the command of General Valeriano Weyler repressed the insurrection. Particularly notorious was their policy of re-concentration in which Spanish troops forced rebels from the countryside into military-controlled camps in the cities, where many died from harsh conditions.

Figure 2. Although later reports would suggest the explosion was due to loose gunpowder onboard the ship, the press treated the explosion of the USS Maine as high drama. Note the lower headline citing that the ship was destroyed by a mine, despite the lack of evidence.

As with previous uprisings, Americans were largely sympathetic to the Cuban rebels’ cause, especially given the brutality of the Spanish response. Evoking the same rhetoric of independence with which they fought the British during the American Revolution, many rallied to the Cuban’s cause. Additionally, shippers and other businessmen, particularly in the sugar industry, supported American intervention to safeguard their own interests in the region. José Martí’s Cuba Libre movement quickly established offices in New York and Florida, further stirring American interest in the liberation cause. The difference in this uprising, however, was that supporters saw in the renewed U.S. Navy a force that could be a strong ally for Cuba. Complicating views of the struggle, the late 1890s saw the height of yellow journalism, in which newspapers such as the New York Journal, led by William Randolph Hearst, and the New York World, published by Joseph Pulitzer, competed for readership with sensationalistic stories. These publishers, and many others who printed news stories for maximum drama and effect, knew that war would provide engaging and profitable copy.

However, even as spectacular news stories fanned the public’s desire to see their new navy deployed in the service of freedom, one key figure remained unmoved. President William McKinley, despite commanding this new, powerful navy, also recognized that it and its soldiers were untested. McKinley did publicly admonish Spain for its actions against the rebels and urged Spain to find a peaceful solution in Cuba, but he remained resistant to public pressure for American military intervention.

McKinley’s reticence to involve the United States changed in February 1898. He had ordered one of the newest navy battleships, the USS Maine, to drop anchor off the coast of Cuba in order to observe the situation, and to prepare to evacuate American citizens from Cuba if necessary. Just days after it arrived, on February 15, an explosion destroyed the Maine, killing over 250 American sailors. Immediately, editors jumped on the headline that the explosion was the result of a Spanish attack and that all Americans should support a military response. The newspaper battle cry quickly emerged, “Remember the Maine!” Recent examinations of the original evidence have led many historians to conclude that the explosion was likely an accident due to the storage of gun powder close to the very hot boilers. But in 1898, without ready evidence, the newspapers called for a war that would sell papers, and the American public rallied behind the cry.

McKinley made one final effort to avoid war when late in March he called on Spain to end its policy of concentrating Cuba’s Indigenous population in military camps and to formally confirm Cuba’s independence. Spain refused, leaving McKinley little choice but to request a declaration of war from Congress. Congress received McKinley’s war message, and on April 19, 1898, they officially recognized Cuba’s independence and authorized McKinley to use military force to remove Spain from the island. Equally important, Congress passed the Teller Amendment to the resolution, which stated that the United States would not annex Cuba following the war.

War: Brief and Decisive

The Spanish-American War lasted approximately ten weeks, and the outcome was clear: The United States triumphed in its goal of ending Spanish rule over Cuba. Despite the positive result, the conflict did present significant challenges to the United States military. Although the new navy was powerful, the ships and the crews were, as McKinley feared, largely untested. The country had fewer than thirty thousand soldiers and sailors, many of whom were unprepared to challenge a formidable opponent. But a surge in volunteers sought to make up the difference, and, over one million American men—many lacking a uniform and coming equipped with their own guns—quickly answered McKinley’s call.

Nearly ten thousand Black American men also volunteered for service, despite the segregated conditions and additional hardships they faced, which included violent uprisings at some American bases before they departed for Cuba. The government, although grateful for the volunteer effort, was still unprepared to feed and supply such a force, and many suffered malnutrition and malaria as part of their sacrifice.

War in the Philippines

To the surprise of the Spanish forces who saw the conflict as a clear war over Cuba, American military strategists prepared for it as a war for empire. More than simply the liberation of Cuba and the protection of American interests in the Caribbean, military strategists sought to further Mahan’s vision of additional naval bases in the Pacific Ocean, reaching as far as mainland Asia. Such a strategy would also benefit American industrialists who sought to expand their markets into China.

Just before leaving his post for volunteer service as a lieutenant colonel in the U.S. Cavalry, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt ordered navy ships to attack the Spanish fleet in the Philippines (another island chain under Spanish control). As a result, the first significant military confrontation took place not in Cuba but halfway around the world in the Philippines. Commodore George Dewey led the U.S. Navy in a decisive victory, sinking all of the Spanish ships while suffering almost no American losses. Within a month, the U.S. Army landed a force to take the islands from Spain, which it succeeded in doing by mid-August 1899.

War in Cuba

The victory in Cuba took a little longer. In June, seventeen thousand American troops landed in Cuba. Although they initially met with little Spanish resistance, by early July, fierce battles ensued near the stronghold in Santiago. Most famously, Theodore Roosevelt led his Rough Riders, an all-volunteer cavalry unit made up of adventure-seeking college graduates, veterans, and cowboys from the Southwest, in a charge up Kettle Hill, next to San Juan Hill, which resulted in American forces surrounding Santiago. The victories of the Rough Riders are the best-known part of the battle, but in fact, several Black American regiments, made up of veteran soldiers, were instrumental to their success.

The Spanish fleet made a last-ditch effort to escape to the sea but ran into an American naval blockade that resulted in total destruction, with every Spanish vessel sunk. Lacking any naval support, Spain quickly lost control of Puerto Rico as well, offering virtually no resistance to advancing American forces. By the end of July, the fighting had ended and the war was over. The conflict was notable for its short duration and limited number of casualties—fewer than 350 soldiers died in combat, about 1,600 were wounded, while almost 3,000 men died from disease.

“Smoked Yankees”: Black Soldiers in the Spanish-American War

Figure 3. The decision to fight or not was debated in the Black community, as some felt they owed little to a country that still granted them citizenship in name only, while others believed that proving their patriotism would enhance their opportunities. (credit: Library of Congress)

The most popular image of the Spanish-American War is of Theodore Roosevelt and his Rough Riders, charging up San Juan Hill. But less well known is that the Rough Riders struggled mightily in several battles and would have sustained far more serious casualties, if not for the experienced Black veterans—over twenty-five hundred of them—who joined them in battle. These soldiers, who had been fighting the Indian Wars on the American frontier for many years, were instrumental in the U.S. victory in Cuba.

The choice to serve in the Spanish-American War was not a simple one. Within the Black community, many spoke out both for and against involvement in the war. Many Black Americans felt that because they were not offered the true rights of citizenship it was not their burden to volunteer for war. Others, in contrast, argued that participation in the war offered an opportunity for Black Americans to prove themselves to the rest of the country. While their presence was welcomed by the military which desperately needed experienced soldiers, the Black regiments suffered racism and harsh treatment while training in the southern states before shipping off to battle.

Once in Cuba, however, the “Smoked Yankees,” as the Cubans called the Black American soldiers, fought side-by-side with Roosevelt’s Rough Riders, providing crucial tactical support to some of the most important battles of the war. After the Battle of San Juan, five Black soldiers received the Medal of Honor and twenty-five others were awarded a certificate of merit. One reporter wrote that “if it had not been for the Negro cavalry, the Rough Riders would have been exterminated.” He went on to state that, having grown up in the South, he had never been fond of Black people before witnessing the battle. However, others still criticized Black American troops. Despite their role in protecting his men, Theodore Roosevelt had this to say: “Negro troops were shirkers in their duties and would only go as far as they were led by White officers.”^[1]