{"id":1862,"date":"2021-07-30T00:01:52","date_gmt":"2021-07-30T00:01:52","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=1862"},"modified":"2022-09-28T19:40:15","modified_gmt":"2022-09-28T19:40:15","slug":"gay-rights-and-womens-liberation","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/chapter\/gay-rights-and-womens-liberation\/","title":{"raw":"Gay Rights and Women's Liberation","rendered":"Gay Rights and Women&#8217;s Liberation"},"content":{"raw":"<section id=\"fs-idm20493520\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe\u00a0how the Stonewall riots changed gay rights activism<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe women's activism during the 1970s, including the rise and fall of the equal rights amendment<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Gay Rights<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_528\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"420\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/Stonewall.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-528 \" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/881\/2015\/08\/23195554\/Stonewall.jpg\" alt=\"Stonewall\" width=\"420\" height=\"644\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. The window under the Stonewall sign reads: \u201cWe homosexuals plead with our people to please help maintain peaceful and quiet conduct on the streets of the Village--Mattachine.\u201d Stonewall Inn 1969, <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Stonewall_Inn_1969.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Wikimedia<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp222393152\">Combined with the sexual revolution and the feminist movement of the 1960s, the counterculture helped establish a climate that fostered the struggle for gay and lesbian rights. Many gay rights groups were founded in Los Angeles and San Francisco, cities that were administrative centers in the network of U.S. military installations and the places where many gay men suffered dishonorable discharges. The first postwar organization for homosexual civil rights, the Mattachine Society, was launched in Los Angeles in 1950. The first national organization for lesbians, the Daughters of Bilitis, was founded in San Francisco five years later. Both groups sought to incorporate gay men and lesbian women, respectively, into polite society, and even their names referred to homosexuality only in the most oblique manner.\u00a0In 1966,\u00a0San Francisco also\u00a0became home to the world\u2019s first organization for transsexual people, the National Transsexual Counseling Unit, and in 1967, the Sexual Freedom League of San Francisco was born.<\/p>\r\nThrough these organizations and others, gay and lesbian activists fought against the criminalization and discrimination of their sexual identities on a number of occasions throughout the 1960s, employing strategies of both protests and litigation. However, the most famous event in the gay rights movement took place not in San Francisco but in New York City. Early in the morning of June 28, 1969, police raided a Greenwich Village gay bar called the Stonewall Inn. The sweltering heat of that summer, combined with the recent death of gay icon Judy Garland and an epidemic of police raids on other gay-friendly establishments set the scene for an antagonistic confrontation.\u00a0As the police prepared to arrest many of the customers, especially transsexuals and cross-dressers, who were particular targets for police harassment, a crowd began to gather. Angered by the brutal treatment of the prisoners, the crowd attacked. Beer bottles and bricks were thrown. The police barricaded themselves inside the bar and waited for reinforcements, as the rioting continued for hours.\r\n\r\nWhen the riot itself ended, Greenwich Village's gay community began marching openly in the street, both publicly and proudly. One participant, Mark Segal, remembered, \"We were joyous. We were so happy that night! Because we were fighting back! And we have never done so before.\"[footnote]Allie Yang. \u201cLGBT Activists Remember Stonewall Riots 50 Years Later: 'We Were Fighting and It Was for Our Lives'.\u201d <em>ABC News Network<\/em>, June 28, 2019. https:\/\/abcnews.go.com\/US\/lgbt-activists-remember-stonewall-riots-50-years-fighting\/story?id=63083481.[\/footnote]\u00a0Shortly thereafter, the Gay Liberation Front and Gay Activists\u2019 Alliance were formed, and began to protest discrimination, homophobia, and violence against gay people, promoting gay liberation and gay pride.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nWatch this video to learn more about the significance of the Stonewall riots.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Q9wdMJmuBlA\r\n\r\nYou can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/US+history+II\/HowtheStonewallRiotsSparkedaMovementHistory.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cHow the Stonewall Riots Sparked a Movement | History\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=XoXH-Yqwyb0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Watch this video<\/a>\u00a0to learn about other major events related to queer political activism,\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp229348288\">With a call for gay men and women to \u201ccome out,\u201d a consciousness-raising campaign that shared many principles with the counterculture, gay and lesbian communities moved from the urban underground into the arena of public debate. Gay rights activists protested strongly against the official position of the American Psychiatric Association (APA), which categorized homosexuality as a mental illness, a seemingly authoritative designation that often resulted in job loss, loss of custody, and other serious personal consequences. By 1974, the APA had ceased to classify homosexuality as a form of mental illness but continued to consider it a \u201csexual orientation disturbance.\u201d Nevertheless, in 1974, Kathy Kozachenko became the first openly lesbian woman voted into office in Ann Arbor, Michigan. In 1977, Harvey Milk became California\u2019s first openly gay man elected to public office, although his service on San Francisco\u2019s board of supervisors, along with that of San Francisco mayor George Moscone, was cut short by the bullet of disgruntled former city supervisor Dan White. In 1982, Wisconsin became the first state to ban discrimination based on sexual orientation. More than eighty cities and nine states followed suit over the following decade. But progress proceeded unevenly, and gay Americans continued to suffer hardships from a hostile culture.<\/p>\r\nLike all social movements, the sexual revolution was not free of division. Transgender people were often banned from participating in Gay Pride rallies and lesbian feminist conferences. They, in turn, mobilized to fight the high incidence of rape, abuse, and murder of transgender people. A 1971 newsletter denounced the notion that transgender people were mentally ill and highlighted the particular injustices they faced in and out of the gay community, declaring, \u201cAll power to Trans Liberation.\u201d[footnote]Trans Liberation Newsletter, in Susan Styker, Transgender History (Berkeley, CA: Seal Press, 2008), 96\u201397.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nAs events in the 1970s broadened sexual freedoms and promoted greater gender equality, so too did they generate sustained and organized opposition. Evangelical Christians and other moral conservatives, for instance, mobilized to reverse gay victories. In 1977, activists in Dade County, Florida, used the slogan \u201cSave Our Children\u201d to overturn an ordinance banning discrimination based on sexual orientation.\u00a0A leader of the ascendant religious right, Jerry Falwell, said in 1980, \u201cIt is now time to take a stand on certain moral issues. . . . We must stand against the Equal Rights Amendment, the feminist revolution, and the homosexual revolution. We must have a revival in this country.\u201d[footnote]Jerry Falwell, Listen, America! (Garden City, NY: Doubleday), 19.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nMuch to Falwell\u2019s delight, conservative Americans did, in fact, stand up against many such movements, including defeating the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), their most stunning social victory of the 1970s.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/88dca1b9-f802-4e56-ae72-87ca74312fc6\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm19716640\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">The Women's Movement<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp170986976\">The feminist push for greater rights continued through the 1970s. The media often ridiculed feminists as \u201cwomen\u2019s libbers\u201d and focused on more radical organizations like W.I.T.C.H. (Women\u2019s International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell), which engaged in street theatre tactics, such as placing a \"hex\" on Wall Street. Many reporters stressed the most unusual goals of the most radical women\u2014calls for the abolition of marriage and demands that manholes be renamed \u201cpersonholes.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_30_01_Women\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"520\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203358\/CNX_History_30_01_Women.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows a protest march of women on a city street. Participants hold signs with messages such as \u201cWomen Demand Equality;\u201d \u201cI\u2019m a Second Class Citizen;\u201d and \u201cGWU Women\u2019s Liberation. Students Employees Faculty Wives Neighbors.\u201d\" width=\"520\" height=\"298\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. In 1970, supporters of equal rights for women marched in Washington, DC.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp46139632\">The majority of feminists, however, sought meaningful accomplishments. In the 1970s, they opened battered women\u2019s shelters and successfully fought for protection from employment discrimination for pregnant women. They sought the reform of rape laws (such as the abolition of laws requiring a witness to corroborate a woman\u2019s report of rape), criminalization of domestic violence, and\u00a0phasing out \"head of household\" policies that often restricted the economic independence of married women.<\/p>\r\nThe 1970s saw the reform of divorce laws. Between 1959 and 1979 the American divorce rate doubled. Close to half of all marriages formed in the 1970s ended in divorce. The longtime\u00a0stigma attached to divorce evaporated and American culture encouraged individuals to leave abusive or unfulfilling marriages. Before 1969, most states required one spouse to prove that the other was guilty of a specific offense, such as adultery. The difficulty of getting a divorce under this system encouraged widespread lying in divorce courts. Even couples desiring an amicable split were sometimes forced to claim that one spouse had cheated on the other even if neither (or both) had. Other couples temporarily relocated to states with more lenient divorce laws, such as Nevada. Widespread recognition of such practices prompted reforms. In 1969, California adopted the first no-fault divorce law. By the end of the 1970s, almost every state had adopted some form of no-fault divorce. The new laws allowed for divorce on the basis of \u201cirreconcilable differences,\u201d even if only one party felt that he or she could not stay in the marriage.\u00a0While these reforms allowed many unhappy or abusive marriages to end, social conservatives worried that these changes undermined the strength of the American nuclear family.\r\n<h3><em>Roe v. Wade<\/em><\/h3>\r\nIn 1973, the U.S. Supreme Court in <em data-effect=\"italics\">Roe v. Wade<\/em> affirmed a number of state laws under which abortions obtained during the first three months of pregnancy were legal.\u00a0The Supreme Court\u2019s 7-1 ruling struck down a Texas law that prohibited abortion in all cases when a mother\u2019s life was not in danger. The Court\u2019s decision built upon precedent from a 1965 ruling that\u00a0struck down a\u00a0Connecticut law prohibiting married couples from using birth control, recognizing\u00a0a constitutional \u201cright to privacy.\u201d In\u00a0<i>Roe,\u00a0<\/i>the Court reasoned that \u201cthis right of privacy . . . is broad enough to encompass a woman\u2019s decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy.\u201d The Court held that states could not interfere with a woman\u2019s right to an abortion during the first trimester of pregnancy and could only fully prohibit abortions during the third trimester. This made\u00a0nontherapeutic abortion a legal medical procedure nationwide.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, new laws prohibiting employment discrimination increased opportunities for women to make a living outside of the home. Women\u2014haltingly and with significant disparities\u2014advanced into traditionally male occupations, including politics and corporate management.\r\n<h3>Women in Politics<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm18637360\">Many advances in women\u2019s rights were the result of women\u2019s greater engagement in politics. For example, Patsy Mink of Hawaii, the first Asian American woman elected to Congress, was the co-author of the Education Amendments Act of 1972, Title IX, which prohibits sex discrimination in education. Mink had been interested in fighting discrimination in education since her youth, when she opposed racial segregation in campus housing while a student at the University of Nebraska. She went to law school after being denied admission to medical school because of her gender. Like Mink, many other women sought and won political office, many with the help of the National Women\u2019s Political Caucus (NWPC). In 1971, the NWPC was formed by Bella Abzug, Gloria Steinem, Shirley Chisholm, and other leading feminists to encourage women\u2019s participation in political parties, elect women to office, and raise money for their campaigns.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_30_01_Mink\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"520\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203400\/CNX_History_30_01_Mink.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph (a) shows Patsy Mink. Photograph (b) shows Bella Abzug.\" width=\"520\" height=\"356\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. Patsy Mink (a), a Japanese American from Hawaii, was the first Asian American woman elected to the House of Representatives. In her successful 1970 congressional campaign, Bella Abzug (b) declared, \u201cThis woman\u2019s place is in the House... the House of Representatives!\u201d[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<h3>The Equal Rights Amendment<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp22950720\">The <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">National Organization for Women<\/span> (NOW), which predated most of these organizations, focused its efforts on\u00a0the passage of an <strong>Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)<\/strong>.\u00a0Versions of the Amendment, which declared, \u201cEquality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of sex,\u201d were introduced to Congress each year since 1923. It finally passed amid the revolutions of the sixties and seventies and went to the states for ratification in March 1972, with a deadline of seven years for passage; if the amendment was not ratified by thirty-eight states by 1979, it would die.<\/p>\r\nWith high approval ratings, the ERA seemed destined to swiftly pass through state legislatures and become the Twenty-Seventh Amendment. Hawaii ratified the Amendment the same day it was passed by Congress. At first, with broad support from both Democrats and Republicans, it looked as though ratification was inevitable. With thirty-eight states needed for ratification,\u00a0thirty-five ratified the amendment by 1977, but progress stalled there.\u00a0In 1979, still four votes short, the amendment received a brief reprieve when Congress agreed to a three-year extension, but it never passed, as the result of the well-organized opposition of Christian and other socially conservative, grassroots organizations.\r\n\r\nThe failed battle for the ERA uncovered the limits of the feminist crusade. And it illustrated the women\u2019s movement\u2019s inherent incapacity to represent fully the views of fifty percent of the country\u2019s population, a population troubled by class differences, racial disparities, and cultural and religious divisions.\r\n<h2>The Anti-ERA Movement<\/h2>\r\nBy 1977, anti-ERA forces had gathered and deployed their strength against the new Amendment. At a time when many women shared Betty Friedan\u2019s frustration that society seemed to confine women to the role of homemaker, Phyllis Schlafly\u2019s STOP ERA organization (\u201cStop Taking Our Privileges\u201d) trumpeted the value and advantages of homemakers and mothers. Schlafly worked tirelessly to\u00a0stymie\u00a0the ERA's progress through state legislatures. She lobbied\u00a0lawmakers, encouraged mass letter-writing campaigns,\u00a0and organized counter-rallies to ensure that Americans heard \u201cfrom the millions of happily married women who believe in the laws which protect the family and require the husband to support his wife and children.\u201d\r\n\r\nSchlafly made the novel argument that the Equal Rights Amendment would, in fact, put women at a disadvantage by nullifying laws granting women special protections.\u00a0While feminism thrived in educated, secular, and cosmopolitan circles, opposition to the ERA tended to be more working and middle-class, strongly religious, and suspicious of liberal overreach. For them, the postwar ideal of the housewife meant liberation from the toil of salaried work.\u00a0Often, Schlafly's organization exploited racialized fears to raise doubts about the ERA; one booklet asked a loaded question about public restrooms:\u00a0\u201cDo you want the sexes fully integrated like the races?\u201d[footnote]Gillian Frank, \"The Civil Rights of Parents: Race and Conservative Politics in Anita Bryant's Campaign against Gay Rights in 1970s Florida\" Journal of the History of Sexuality (January, 2013), 137.[\/footnote]\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/483b220f-4429-42ec-a066-eff187373d25\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/87a54e91-6c5b-453e-b0ce-35a95db2b453\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nThis video describes some of the history behind the equal rights amendment, as explained by\u00a0Professor Jane Mansbridge of\u00a0Harvard Kennedy School.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=82WoxehH980\r\n\r\nYou can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/US+history+II\/TheHistoryoftheEqualRightsAmendment3ThingsYou.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cThe History of the Equal Rights Amendment: 3 Things You Should Know\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm19716640\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<strong>Equal Rights Amendment (ERA): <\/strong>a\u00a0proposed, and ultimately unsuccessful, constitutional amendment that would have mandated legal equality between men and women\r\n\r\n<strong><span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">National Organization for Women<\/span> (NOW): <\/strong>a\u00a0civil rights organization founded by Betty Friedan which sought legal equality and opportunity for women\r\n\r\n<strong><em data-effect=\"italics\">Roe v. Wade: <\/em><\/strong>a\u00a01973 Supreme Court case that struck down most state laws restricting abortion during the first trimester\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<section id=\"fs-idm20493520\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe\u00a0how the Stonewall riots changed gay rights activism<\/li>\n<li>Describe women&#8217;s activism during the 1970s, including the rise and fall of the equal rights amendment<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Gay Rights<\/h2>\n<div id=\"attachment_528\" style=\"width: 430px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/Stonewall.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-528\" class=\"wp-image-528\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/881\/2015\/08\/23195554\/Stonewall.jpg\" alt=\"Stonewall\" width=\"420\" height=\"644\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-528\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. The window under the Stonewall sign reads: \u201cWe homosexuals plead with our people to please help maintain peaceful and quiet conduct on the streets of the Village&#8211;Mattachine.\u201d Stonewall Inn 1969, <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Stonewall_Inn_1969.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Wikimedia<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp222393152\">Combined with the sexual revolution and the feminist movement of the 1960s, the counterculture helped establish a climate that fostered the struggle for gay and lesbian rights. Many gay rights groups were founded in Los Angeles and San Francisco, cities that were administrative centers in the network of U.S. military installations and the places where many gay men suffered dishonorable discharges. The first postwar organization for homosexual civil rights, the Mattachine Society, was launched in Los Angeles in 1950. The first national organization for lesbians, the Daughters of Bilitis, was founded in San Francisco five years later. Both groups sought to incorporate gay men and lesbian women, respectively, into polite society, and even their names referred to homosexuality only in the most oblique manner.\u00a0In 1966,\u00a0San Francisco also\u00a0became home to the world\u2019s first organization for transsexual people, the National Transsexual Counseling Unit, and in 1967, the Sexual Freedom League of San Francisco was born.<\/p>\n<p>Through these organizations and others, gay and lesbian activists fought against the criminalization and discrimination of their sexual identities on a number of occasions throughout the 1960s, employing strategies of both protests and litigation. However, the most famous event in the gay rights movement took place not in San Francisco but in New York City. Early in the morning of June 28, 1969, police raided a Greenwich Village gay bar called the Stonewall Inn. The sweltering heat of that summer, combined with the recent death of gay icon Judy Garland and an epidemic of police raids on other gay-friendly establishments set the scene for an antagonistic confrontation.\u00a0As the police prepared to arrest many of the customers, especially transsexuals and cross-dressers, who were particular targets for police harassment, a crowd began to gather. Angered by the brutal treatment of the prisoners, the crowd attacked. Beer bottles and bricks were thrown. The police barricaded themselves inside the bar and waited for reinforcements, as the rioting continued for hours.<\/p>\n<p>When the riot itself ended, Greenwich Village&#8217;s gay community began marching openly in the street, both publicly and proudly. One participant, Mark Segal, remembered, &#8220;We were joyous. We were so happy that night! Because we were fighting back! And we have never done so before.&#8221;<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Allie Yang. \u201cLGBT Activists Remember Stonewall Riots 50 Years Later: 'We Were Fighting and It Was for Our Lives'.\u201d ABC News Network, June 28, 2019. https:\/\/abcnews.go.com\/US\/lgbt-activists-remember-stonewall-riots-50-years-fighting\/story?id=63083481.\" id=\"return-footnote-1862-1\" href=\"#footnote-1862-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0Shortly thereafter, the Gay Liberation Front and Gay Activists\u2019 Alliance were formed, and began to protest discrimination, homophobia, and violence against gay people, promoting gay liberation and gay pride.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this video to learn more about the significance of the Stonewall riots.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"How the Stonewall Riots Sparked a Movement | History\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Q9wdMJmuBlA?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/US+history+II\/HowtheStonewallRiotsSparkedaMovementHistory.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cHow the Stonewall Riots Sparked a Movement | History\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=XoXH-Yqwyb0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Watch this video<\/a>\u00a0to learn about other major events related to queer political activism,<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp229348288\">With a call for gay men and women to \u201ccome out,\u201d a consciousness-raising campaign that shared many principles with the counterculture, gay and lesbian communities moved from the urban underground into the arena of public debate. Gay rights activists protested strongly against the official position of the American Psychiatric Association (APA), which categorized homosexuality as a mental illness, a seemingly authoritative designation that often resulted in job loss, loss of custody, and other serious personal consequences. By 1974, the APA had ceased to classify homosexuality as a form of mental illness but continued to consider it a \u201csexual orientation disturbance.\u201d Nevertheless, in 1974, Kathy Kozachenko became the first openly lesbian woman voted into office in Ann Arbor, Michigan. In 1977, Harvey Milk became California\u2019s first openly gay man elected to public office, although his service on San Francisco\u2019s board of supervisors, along with that of San Francisco mayor George Moscone, was cut short by the bullet of disgruntled former city supervisor Dan White. In 1982, Wisconsin became the first state to ban discrimination based on sexual orientation. More than eighty cities and nine states followed suit over the following decade. But progress proceeded unevenly, and gay Americans continued to suffer hardships from a hostile culture.<\/p>\n<p>Like all social movements, the sexual revolution was not free of division. Transgender people were often banned from participating in Gay Pride rallies and lesbian feminist conferences. They, in turn, mobilized to fight the high incidence of rape, abuse, and murder of transgender people. A 1971 newsletter denounced the notion that transgender people were mentally ill and highlighted the particular injustices they faced in and out of the gay community, declaring, \u201cAll power to Trans Liberation.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Trans Liberation Newsletter, in Susan Styker, Transgender History (Berkeley, CA: Seal Press, 2008), 96\u201397.\" id=\"return-footnote-1862-2\" href=\"#footnote-1862-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>As events in the 1970s broadened sexual freedoms and promoted greater gender equality, so too did they generate sustained and organized opposition. Evangelical Christians and other moral conservatives, for instance, mobilized to reverse gay victories. In 1977, activists in Dade County, Florida, used the slogan \u201cSave Our Children\u201d to overturn an ordinance banning discrimination based on sexual orientation.\u00a0A leader of the ascendant religious right, Jerry Falwell, said in 1980, \u201cIt is now time to take a stand on certain moral issues. . . . We must stand against the Equal Rights Amendment, the feminist revolution, and the homosexual revolution. We must have a revival in this country.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Jerry Falwell, Listen, America! (Garden City, NY: Doubleday), 19.\" id=\"return-footnote-1862-3\" href=\"#footnote-1862-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Much to Falwell\u2019s delight, conservative Americans did, in fact, stand up against many such movements, including defeating the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), their most stunning social victory of the 1970s.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_88dca1b9-f802-4e56-ae72-87ca74312fc6\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/88dca1b9-f802-4e56-ae72-87ca74312fc6?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_88dca1b9-f802-4e56-ae72-87ca74312fc6\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm19716640\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">The Women&#8217;s Movement<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp170986976\">The feminist push for greater rights continued through the 1970s. The media often ridiculed feminists as \u201cwomen\u2019s libbers\u201d and focused on more radical organizations like W.I.T.C.H. (Women\u2019s International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell), which engaged in street theatre tactics, such as placing a &#8220;hex&#8221; on Wall Street. Many reporters stressed the most unusual goals of the most radical women\u2014calls for the abolition of marriage and demands that manholes be renamed \u201cpersonholes.\u201d<\/p>\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_30_01_Women\">\n<div style=\"width: 530px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203358\/CNX_History_30_01_Women.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows a protest march of women on a city street. Participants hold signs with messages such as \u201cWomen Demand Equality;\u201d \u201cI\u2019m a Second Class Citizen;\u201d and \u201cGWU Women\u2019s Liberation. Students Employees Faculty Wives Neighbors.\u201d\" width=\"520\" height=\"298\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. In 1970, supporters of equal rights for women marched in Washington, DC.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"fs-idp46139632\">The majority of feminists, however, sought meaningful accomplishments. In the 1970s, they opened battered women\u2019s shelters and successfully fought for protection from employment discrimination for pregnant women. They sought the reform of rape laws (such as the abolition of laws requiring a witness to corroborate a woman\u2019s report of rape), criminalization of domestic violence, and\u00a0phasing out &#8220;head of household&#8221; policies that often restricted the economic independence of married women.<\/p>\n<p>The 1970s saw the reform of divorce laws. Between 1959 and 1979 the American divorce rate doubled. Close to half of all marriages formed in the 1970s ended in divorce. The longtime\u00a0stigma attached to divorce evaporated and American culture encouraged individuals to leave abusive or unfulfilling marriages. Before 1969, most states required one spouse to prove that the other was guilty of a specific offense, such as adultery. The difficulty of getting a divorce under this system encouraged widespread lying in divorce courts. Even couples desiring an amicable split were sometimes forced to claim that one spouse had cheated on the other even if neither (or both) had. Other couples temporarily relocated to states with more lenient divorce laws, such as Nevada. Widespread recognition of such practices prompted reforms. In 1969, California adopted the first no-fault divorce law. By the end of the 1970s, almost every state had adopted some form of no-fault divorce. The new laws allowed for divorce on the basis of \u201cirreconcilable differences,\u201d even if only one party felt that he or she could not stay in the marriage.\u00a0While these reforms allowed many unhappy or abusive marriages to end, social conservatives worried that these changes undermined the strength of the American nuclear family.<\/p>\n<h3><em>Roe v. Wade<\/em><\/h3>\n<p>In 1973, the U.S. Supreme Court in <em data-effect=\"italics\">Roe v. Wade<\/em> affirmed a number of state laws under which abortions obtained during the first three months of pregnancy were legal.\u00a0The Supreme Court\u2019s 7-1 ruling struck down a Texas law that prohibited abortion in all cases when a mother\u2019s life was not in danger. The Court\u2019s decision built upon precedent from a 1965 ruling that\u00a0struck down a\u00a0Connecticut law prohibiting married couples from using birth control, recognizing\u00a0a constitutional \u201cright to privacy.\u201d In\u00a0<i>Roe,\u00a0<\/i>the Court reasoned that \u201cthis right of privacy . . . is broad enough to encompass a woman\u2019s decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy.\u201d The Court held that states could not interfere with a woman\u2019s right to an abortion during the first trimester of pregnancy and could only fully prohibit abortions during the third trimester. This made\u00a0nontherapeutic abortion a legal medical procedure nationwide.<\/p>\n<p>Furthermore, new laws prohibiting employment discrimination increased opportunities for women to make a living outside of the home. Women\u2014haltingly and with significant disparities\u2014advanced into traditionally male occupations, including politics and corporate management.<\/p>\n<h3>Women in Politics<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm18637360\">Many advances in women\u2019s rights were the result of women\u2019s greater engagement in politics. For example, Patsy Mink of Hawaii, the first Asian American woman elected to Congress, was the co-author of the Education Amendments Act of 1972, Title IX, which prohibits sex discrimination in education. Mink had been interested in fighting discrimination in education since her youth, when she opposed racial segregation in campus housing while a student at the University of Nebraska. She went to law school after being denied admission to medical school because of her gender. Like Mink, many other women sought and won political office, many with the help of the National Women\u2019s Political Caucus (NWPC). In 1971, the NWPC was formed by Bella Abzug, Gloria Steinem, Shirley Chisholm, and other leading feminists to encourage women\u2019s participation in political parties, elect women to office, and raise money for their campaigns.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_30_01_Mink\">\n<div style=\"width: 530px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203400\/CNX_History_30_01_Mink.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph (a) shows Patsy Mink. Photograph (b) shows Bella Abzug.\" width=\"520\" height=\"356\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. Patsy Mink (a), a Japanese American from Hawaii, was the first Asian American woman elected to the House of Representatives. In her successful 1970 congressional campaign, Bella Abzug (b) declared, \u201cThis woman\u2019s place is in the House&#8230; the House of Representatives!\u201d<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<h3>The Equal Rights Amendment<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp22950720\">The <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">National Organization for Women<\/span> (NOW), which predated most of these organizations, focused its efforts on\u00a0the passage of an <strong>Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)<\/strong>.\u00a0Versions of the Amendment, which declared, \u201cEquality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of sex,\u201d were introduced to Congress each year since 1923. It finally passed amid the revolutions of the sixties and seventies and went to the states for ratification in March 1972, with a deadline of seven years for passage; if the amendment was not ratified by thirty-eight states by 1979, it would die.<\/p>\n<p>With high approval ratings, the ERA seemed destined to swiftly pass through state legislatures and become the Twenty-Seventh Amendment. Hawaii ratified the Amendment the same day it was passed by Congress. At first, with broad support from both Democrats and Republicans, it looked as though ratification was inevitable. With thirty-eight states needed for ratification,\u00a0thirty-five ratified the amendment by 1977, but progress stalled there.\u00a0In 1979, still four votes short, the amendment received a brief reprieve when Congress agreed to a three-year extension, but it never passed, as the result of the well-organized opposition of Christian and other socially conservative, grassroots organizations.<\/p>\n<p>The failed battle for the ERA uncovered the limits of the feminist crusade. And it illustrated the women\u2019s movement\u2019s inherent incapacity to represent fully the views of fifty percent of the country\u2019s population, a population troubled by class differences, racial disparities, and cultural and religious divisions.<\/p>\n<h2>The Anti-ERA Movement<\/h2>\n<p>By 1977, anti-ERA forces had gathered and deployed their strength against the new Amendment. At a time when many women shared Betty Friedan\u2019s frustration that society seemed to confine women to the role of homemaker, Phyllis Schlafly\u2019s STOP ERA organization (\u201cStop Taking Our Privileges\u201d) trumpeted the value and advantages of homemakers and mothers. Schlafly worked tirelessly to\u00a0stymie\u00a0the ERA&#8217;s progress through state legislatures. She lobbied\u00a0lawmakers, encouraged mass letter-writing campaigns,\u00a0and organized counter-rallies to ensure that Americans heard \u201cfrom the millions of happily married women who believe in the laws which protect the family and require the husband to support his wife and children.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Schlafly made the novel argument that the Equal Rights Amendment would, in fact, put women at a disadvantage by nullifying laws granting women special protections.\u00a0While feminism thrived in educated, secular, and cosmopolitan circles, opposition to the ERA tended to be more working and middle-class, strongly religious, and suspicious of liberal overreach. For them, the postwar ideal of the housewife meant liberation from the toil of salaried work.\u00a0Often, Schlafly&#8217;s organization exploited racialized fears to raise doubts about the ERA; one booklet asked a loaded question about public restrooms:\u00a0\u201cDo you want the sexes fully integrated like the races?\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Gillian Frank, &quot;The Civil Rights of Parents: Race and Conservative Politics in Anita Bryant's Campaign against Gay Rights in 1970s Florida&quot; Journal of the History of Sexuality (January, 2013), 137.\" id=\"return-footnote-1862-4\" href=\"#footnote-1862-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_483b220f-4429-42ec-a066-eff187373d25\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/483b220f-4429-42ec-a066-eff187373d25?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_483b220f-4429-42ec-a066-eff187373d25\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_87a54e91-6c5b-453e-b0ce-35a95db2b453\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/87a54e91-6c5b-453e-b0ce-35a95db2b453?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_87a54e91-6c5b-453e-b0ce-35a95db2b453\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>This video describes some of the history behind the equal rights amendment, as explained by\u00a0Professor Jane Mansbridge of\u00a0Harvard Kennedy School.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"The History of the Equal Rights Amendment: 3 Things You Should Know\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/82WoxehH980?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/US+history+II\/TheHistoryoftheEqualRightsAmendment3ThingsYou.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cThe History of the Equal Rights Amendment: 3 Things You Should Know\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm19716640\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Equal Rights Amendment (ERA): <\/strong>a\u00a0proposed, and ultimately unsuccessful, constitutional amendment that would have mandated legal equality between men and women<\/p>\n<p><strong><span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">National Organization for Women<\/span> (NOW): <\/strong>a\u00a0civil rights organization founded by Betty Friedan which sought legal equality and opportunity for women<\/p>\n<p><strong><em data-effect=\"italics\">Roe v. Wade: <\/em><\/strong>a\u00a01973 Supreme Court case that struck down most state laws restricting abortion during the first trimester<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-1862\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Stonewall Inn. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikimedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Stonewall_Inn_1969.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Stonewall_Inn_1969.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>US History. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history\">http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/1-introduction<\/li><li>The Politics of Love, Sex, and Gender. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: The American Yawp. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/28-the-unraveling\/\">https:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/28-the-unraveling\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>How the Stonewall Riots Sparked a Movement. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: History. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Q9wdMJmuBlA&#038;feature=emb_logo\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Q9wdMJmuBlA&#038;feature=emb_logo<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>The History of the Equal Rights Amendment: 3 Things You Should Know. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>:  Harvard Kennedy School. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?time_continue=2&#038;v=82WoxehH980&#038;feature=emb_logo\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?time_continue=2&#038;v=82WoxehH980&#038;feature=emb_logo<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-1862-1\">Allie Yang. \u201cLGBT Activists Remember Stonewall Riots 50 Years Later: 'We Were Fighting and It Was for Our Lives'.\u201d <em>ABC News Network<\/em>, June 28, 2019. https:\/\/abcnews.go.com\/US\/lgbt-activists-remember-stonewall-riots-50-years-fighting\/story?id=63083481. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1862-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1862-2\">Trans Liberation Newsletter, in Susan Styker, Transgender History (Berkeley, CA: Seal Press, 2008), 96\u201397. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1862-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1862-3\">Jerry Falwell, Listen, America! (Garden City, NY: Doubleday), 19. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1862-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1862-4\">Gillian Frank, \"The Civil Rights of Parents: Race and Conservative Politics in Anita Bryant's Campaign against Gay Rights in 1970s Florida\" Journal of the History of Sexuality (January, 2013), 137. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1862-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":23592,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"US History\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/1-introduction\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Stonewall Inn\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikimedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Stonewall_Inn_1969.jpg\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"The Politics of Love, Sex, and Gender\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"The American Yawp\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/28-the-unraveling\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"How the Stonewall Riots Sparked a Movement\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"History\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Q9wdMJmuBlA&feature=emb_logo\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"The History of the Equal Rights Amendment: 3 Things You Should Know\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\" Harvard Kennedy School\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?time_continue=2&v=82WoxehH980&feature=emb_logo\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"d939ec18-700a-456c-93eb-fa141cd5f522,77533c14-36a2-44b3-b7a9-abf162183b3c,66877937-cd21-47a6-86f0-0b3138b4dc37","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1862","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":389,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1862","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/23592"}],"version-history":[{"count":37,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1862\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9665,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1862\/revisions\/9665"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/389"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1862\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1862"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1862"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1862"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1862"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}