{"id":196,"date":"2015-08-21T18:07:01","date_gmt":"2015-08-21T18:07:01","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/ushistory2os2xmaster\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=196"},"modified":"2022-08-16T00:30:41","modified_gmt":"2022-08-16T00:30:41","slug":"roosevelts-big-stick-foreign-policy","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/chapter\/roosevelts-big-stick-foreign-policy\/","title":{"raw":"Roosevelt\u2019s \u201cBig Stick\u201d Foreign Policy","rendered":"Roosevelt\u2019s \u201cBig Stick\u201d Foreign Policy"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain and give examples of \u201cbig stick\u201d foreign policy and the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe Theodore Roosevelt\u2019s use of the \u201cbig stick\u201d to construct the Panama Canal<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm142792912\">While President McKinley ushered in the era of the American empire through military strength and economic coercion, his successor, Theodore Roosevelt, established a new foreign policy approach, allegedly based on a favorite African proverb, \u201cspeak softly, and carry a big stick, and you will go far.\u201d\u00a0At the crux of his foreign policy was a thinly veiled threat. Roosevelt believed that in light of the country\u2019s recent military successes, it was unnecessary to <em data-effect=\"italics\">use<\/em> force to achieve foreign policy goals, so long as the military could <em data-effect=\"italics\">threaten<\/em> force. This rationale also rested on the young president\u2019s philosophy, which he termed the \u201cstrenuous life,\u201d and that prized challenges overseas as opportunities to instill American men with the resolve and vigor they allegedly had once acquired in the Trans-Mississippi West.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nBrowse the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.npg.si.edu\/exh\/roosevelt\/trintro2.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery<\/a> to follow Theodore Roosevelt from Rough Rider to president and beyond.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"390\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203013\/CNX_History_22_04_BigStick.jpg\" alt=\"A cartoon, captioned \u201cThe Big Stick in the Caribbean Sea,\u201d shows a massive Roosevelt marching through the Caribbean Sea holding a stick labeled \u201cBig Stick.\u201d Various nations are labeled, including Santo Domingo, Cuba, Mexico, and Panama. Roosevelt pulls a boat labeled \u201cThe Receiver\u201d behind him on a string. Sailing around the perimeter of the Caribbean is a group of ships labeled \u201cDebt Collector\u201d and \u201cSheriff.\u201d\" width=\"390\" height=\"315\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Roosevelt was often depicted in cartoons wielding his \u201cbig stick\u201d and pushing the U.S. foreign agenda, often through the power of the U.S. Navy.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm31798832\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">The Construction of the Panama Canal<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp308988704\">As early as the mid-sixteenth century, interest in a canal across the Central American isthmus began to take root, primarily out of trade interests. The subsequent discovery of gold in California in 1848 further spurred interest in connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and led to the construction of the Panama Railway, which began operations in 1855. Several attempts by France to construct a canal between 1881 and 1894 failed due to a combination of financial crises and health hazards, including <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">malaria<\/span> and <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">yellow fever<\/span>, which led to the deaths of thousands of French workers.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>War in Colombia<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm91795600\">Upon becoming president in 1901, Roosevelt was determined to succeed where others had failed. Following the advice that naval strategist Andrew Mahan set forth in his 1890 book <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Influence of Seapower upon History<\/em>, he sought to achieve the construction of a canal across Central America, primarily for military reasons associated with empire, but also for international trade considerations. The most strategic point for the construction was across the fifty-mile isthmus of Panama, which, at the turn of the century, was part of the nation of Colombia. Roosevelt negotiated with the government of Colombia, sometimes threatening to take the project away and build through Nicaragua, until Colombia agreed to a treaty that would grant the United States a lease on the land across Panama in exchange for a payment of $10 million and an additional $250,000 annual rental fee. The matter was far from settled, however. The Colombian people were outraged over the loss of their land to the United States, and saw the payment as far too low. Influenced by the public outcry, the Colombian Senate rejected the treaty and informed Roosevelt there would be no canal.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4713\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"633\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5696\/2015\/08\/25203920\/Pm-map.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-4713 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5696\/2015\/08\/25203920\/Pm-map.png\" alt=\"Map showing Panama and the location of the canal connecting the Gulf of Panama and the Caribbean Sea.\" width=\"633\" height=\"323\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Map showing the location of the Panama canal, connecting the Caribbean Sea above and the Pacific Ocean below.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp101309520\">Undaunted, Roosevelt chose to now wield the \u201cbig stick.\u201d\u00a0Roosevelt and Hay grew infuriated, although Colombia was acting entirely within its laws and rights. Roosevelt told Hay: \u201cI do not think the Bogot\u00e1 lot of jackrabbits should be allowed permanently to bar one of the future highways of civilization.\u201d He was prepared to use force, to invade and occupy the future canal zone.<\/p>\r\nIn October 1903, the U.S. Navy sent warships to steam off Panama\u2019s coast. On November 2, their captains were ordered to land marines, seize the Panama railroad, and block any Colombian reinforcements that might be sent to put down a Panamanian rebellion.\u00a0Within a week, Roosevelt immediately recognized the new country of Panama, welcoming them to the world community and offering them the same terms\u2014$10 million plus the annual $250,000 rental fee\u2014he had previously offered Colombia. On November 6, 1903, Philippe Bunau-Varilla, as Panama's ambassador to the United States, signed the\u00a0Hay\u2013Bunau-Varilla Treaty, granting rights to the United States to build and indefinitely administer the Panama Canal Zone and its defenses.\r\n\r\nAlmost immediately, the treaty was condemned by many Panamanians as an infringement on their country's new national sovereignty.\u00a0Several parties in the United States also called this an act of war on Colombia: The\u00a0<i>New York Times<\/i>\u00a0described the support given by the United States to Bunau-Varilla as an \"act of sordid conquest.\"\u00a0The\u00a0<i>New York Evening Post<\/i>\u00a0called it a \"vulgar and mercenary venture.\"\u00a0The U.S. maneuvers are often cited as the classic example of U.S. <strong>gunboat diplomacy<\/strong>\u00a0in Latin America.\r\n\r\nIn 1921, Colombia and the United States entered into the\u00a0Thomson\u2013Urrutia Treaty, in which the United States agreed to pay Colombia $25 million: $5 million upon ratification, and four-$5 million annual payments, and grant Colombia special privileges in the Canal Zone. In return, Colombia recognized Panama as an independent nation.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/f3f8342f-253e-4d1a-bde0-41fe715c7d3e\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm25709744\">Once the Panamanian victory was secured, with American support, construction on the canal began in May 1904. For the first year of operations, the United States worked primarily to build adequate housing, cafeterias, warehouses, machine shops, and other elements of infrastructure that previous French efforts had failed to consider. Most importantly, the introduction of fumigation systems and mosquito nets following Dr. Walter Reed\u2019s discovery of the role of mosquitoes in the spread of malaria and yellow fever reduced the death rate and restored flagging morale among workers and American-born supervisors. At the same time, a new wave of American engineers planned for the construction of the canal. Even though they decided to build a lock system rather than a sea-level canal, workers still had to excavate over 170 million cubic yards of earth with the use of over one hundred new rail-mounted steam shovels. Excited by the work, Roosevelt became the first sitting U.S. president to leave the country while in office. He traveled to Panama where he visited the construction site, taking a turn at the steam shovel and removing dirt. The canal opened in 1914, permanently changing world trade and military defense patterns.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_22_04_Canal\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"390\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203014\/CNX_History_22_04_Canal.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows the excavation of the Culebra Cut in the construction of the Panama Canal.\" width=\"390\" height=\"328\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. Recurring landslides made the excavation of the Culebra Cut one of the most technically challenging elements in the construction of the Panama Canal.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp11019392\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nWatch <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=uE_UuHRtXCY\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">this Ted-Ed video to learn more about the construction of the Panama Canal<\/a>, including the extraordinary cost of human lives.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">The Roosevelt Corollary<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm156642816\">With the construction of the canal now underway, Roosevelt next wanted to send a clear message to the rest of the world\u2014and in particular to his European counterparts\u2014that the colonization of the Western Hemisphere had now ended, and that interference in the countries there would no longer be tolerated. At the same time, he sent a message to his counterparts in Central and South America that should the United States see problems erupt in the region, it would intervene in order to maintain peace and stability in the hemisphere. Specifically, the United States would guarantee fiscal stability of debt repayment, which was a mounting crisis in the early 20th century.<\/p>\r\nRising debts to European and American bankers allowed for the inroads of modern life but destabilized much of the region. Bankers, beginning with financial houses in London and New York, saw Latin America as an opportunity for investment. Lenders took advantage of the region\u2019s newly formed governments\u2019 need for cash and exacted punishing interest rates on massive loans, which were then sold off in pieces on the secondary bond market.\u00a0Creditors could not force settlements of loans until they successfully lobbied their own governments to get involved and forcibly collect debts. The Roosevelt administration did not want to deny the Europeans\u2019 rightful demands of repayment of debt, but it also did not want to encourage European policies of conquest in the hemisphere as part of that debt collection.\u00a0Roosevelt first tried this in 1902, when Germany and Great Britain launched a naval blockade of Venezuela in order to try and force the Venezuelan government to repay debts. Under threat, Roosevelt compelled both governments to accept arbitration over repayment.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm2862528\">Roosevelt articulated this seeming double standard in a 1904 address before Congress, in a speech that became known as the <strong>Roosevelt Corollary<\/strong>. The Roosevelt Corollary was based on the original Monroe Doctrine of the early nineteenth century, which warned European nations of the consequences of their interference in the Caribbean. In this addition, Roosevelt stated that the United States would use military force \u201cas an international police power\u201d to correct any \u201cchronic wrongdoing\u201d by any Latin American nation that might threaten stability in the region. Unlike the Monroe Doctrine, which proclaimed an American policy of noninterference with its neighbors\u2019 affairs, the Roosevelt Corollary loudly proclaimed the right and obligation of the United States to involve itself whenever necessary.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm134488480\">Roosevelt immediately began to put the new corollary to work. He used it to establish a protectorate over\u00a0Panama, as well as to direct the United States to manage the Dominican Republic\u2019s customs service revenues. Eventually, Presidents Herbert Hoover and Franklin Roosevelt softened American rhetoric regarding U.S. domination of the Western Hemisphere, with the latter proclaiming a new \u201cGood Neighbor Policy\u201d that renounced American intervention in other nations\u2019 affairs. However, subsequent presidents would continue to reference aspects of the Roosevelt Corollary to justify American involvement in Haiti, Nicaragua, and other nations throughout the twentieth century. The map below\u00a0shows the widespread effects of Roosevelt\u2019s policies throughout Latin America.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_22_04_StickMap\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"585\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203016\/CNX_History_22_04_StickMap.jpg\" alt=\"A map is titled \u201cU.S. Involvement in Latin America under Roosevelt.\u201d Labeled regions include Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Jamaica, Cuba, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. A label pointing to Panama reads \u201cPanama Canal Zone created (1903).\u201d A label pointing to Cuba reads \u201cPlatt Amendment (1901); Cuban-American Treaty (1903).\u201d A label pointing to the Dominican Republic reads \u201cFinancial crisis prompts first use of Roosevelt Corollary (1904\u20131905).\u201d A label pointing to Puerto Rico reads \u201cForaker Act (1900).\u201d\" width=\"585\" height=\"342\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 4<\/strong>. From underwriting a revolution in Panama with the goal of building a canal to putting troops in Cuba, Roosevelt vastly increased the U.S. impact in Latin America.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm23361392\" class=\"history defining-american\" data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Defining American\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>The Roosevelt Corollary and Its Impact<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm26801248\">In 1904, Roosevelt put the United States in the role of the \u201cpolice power\u201d of the Western Hemisphere and set a course for the U.S. relationship with Central and Latin America that played out over the next several decades. He did so with the Roosevelt Corollary, in which he stated:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<blockquote id=\"fs-idp30883088\">\r\n<div>It is not true that the United States feels any land hunger or entertains any projects as regards the other nations of the Western Hemisphere save as such are for their welfare. All that this country desires is to see the neighboring countries stable, orderly, and prosperous. Any country whose people conduct themselves well can count upon our hearty friendship.\u00a0.\u00a0.\u00a0. Chronic wrongdoing, or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may in America, as elsewhere, require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere the adherence of the United States to the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States, however, reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power.\u201d<\/div><\/blockquote>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm71706096\">In the twenty years after he made this statement, the United States would use military force in Latin America over a dozen times. The Roosevelt Corollary was used as a rationale for American involvement in the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Haiti, and other Latin American countries, straining relations between Central America and its dominant neighbor to the north throughout the twentieth century.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/6dfb7c83-02ca-4502-aed3-2c0d989fd20c\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Review Question<\/h3>\r\n<section>Compare Roosevelt\u2019s foreign policy in Latin America and Asia. Why did he employ these different methods?\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"447223\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"447223\"]Roosevelt\u2019s strategy of \u201cspeaking softly and carrying a big stick\u201d worked well in Latin America, where the United States had a strong military presence and could quickly and easily act on any threat of military action. Roosevelt\u2019s threat of force was therefore credible in that region, and he was able to wield it effectively. In Asia, however, the United States had less of a military presence. Instead, Roosevelt sought to maintain a balance of power, wherein the various Asian countries kept each other in check and no single player grew too powerful. When the power balance tipped, Roosevelt acted to broker a peace deal between Russia and Japan as a means of restoring balance.[\/hidden-answer]<\/section><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>INteractive<\/h3>\r\nClick through each of these slides in the interactive below to learn more about President Roosevelt and his portrayals in political cartoons of his era.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/content\/1291675389684869408\/embed\" width=\"1088\" height=\"637\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\" aria-label=\"Theodore Roosevelt in Political Cartoons\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<strong>gunboat diplomacy<\/strong>: the\u00a0pursuit of foreign policy objectives using displays of naval power, implying or constituting a direct threat of warfare if the other party does not comply\r\n\r\n<strong>Panama Canal<\/strong>: a transoceanic canal in Panama that links the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; it is one of the world's major shipping canals\r\n\r\n<strong>Roosevelt Corollary:\u00a0<\/strong>a statement by Theodore Roosevelt that the United States would use military force to act as an international police power and correct any chronic wrongdoing by any Latin American nation threatening the stability of the region\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain and give examples of \u201cbig stick\u201d foreign policy and the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine<\/li>\n<li>Describe Theodore Roosevelt\u2019s use of the \u201cbig stick\u201d to construct the Panama Canal<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm142792912\">While President McKinley ushered in the era of the American empire through military strength and economic coercion, his successor, Theodore Roosevelt, established a new foreign policy approach, allegedly based on a favorite African proverb, \u201cspeak softly, and carry a big stick, and you will go far.\u201d\u00a0At the crux of his foreign policy was a thinly veiled threat. Roosevelt believed that in light of the country\u2019s recent military successes, it was unnecessary to <em data-effect=\"italics\">use<\/em> force to achieve foreign policy goals, so long as the military could <em data-effect=\"italics\">threaten<\/em> force. This rationale also rested on the young president\u2019s philosophy, which he termed the \u201cstrenuous life,\u201d and that prized challenges overseas as opportunities to instill American men with the resolve and vigor they allegedly had once acquired in the Trans-Mississippi West.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Browse the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.npg.si.edu\/exh\/roosevelt\/trintro2.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery<\/a> to follow Theodore Roosevelt from Rough Rider to president and beyond.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203013\/CNX_History_22_04_BigStick.jpg\" alt=\"A cartoon, captioned \u201cThe Big Stick in the Caribbean Sea,\u201d shows a massive Roosevelt marching through the Caribbean Sea holding a stick labeled \u201cBig Stick.\u201d Various nations are labeled, including Santo Domingo, Cuba, Mexico, and Panama. Roosevelt pulls a boat labeled \u201cThe Receiver\u201d behind him on a string. Sailing around the perimeter of the Caribbean is a group of ships labeled \u201cDebt Collector\u201d and \u201cSheriff.\u201d\" width=\"390\" height=\"315\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Roosevelt was often depicted in cartoons wielding his \u201cbig stick\u201d and pushing the U.S. foreign agenda, often through the power of the U.S. Navy.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-idm31798832\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">The Construction of the Panama Canal<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp308988704\">As early as the mid-sixteenth century, interest in a canal across the Central American isthmus began to take root, primarily out of trade interests. The subsequent discovery of gold in California in 1848 further spurred interest in connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and led to the construction of the Panama Railway, which began operations in 1855. Several attempts by France to construct a canal between 1881 and 1894 failed due to a combination of financial crises and health hazards, including <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">malaria<\/span> and <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">yellow fever<\/span>, which led to the deaths of thousands of French workers.<\/p>\n<h3>War in Colombia<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm91795600\">Upon becoming president in 1901, Roosevelt was determined to succeed where others had failed. Following the advice that naval strategist Andrew Mahan set forth in his 1890 book <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Influence of Seapower upon History<\/em>, he sought to achieve the construction of a canal across Central America, primarily for military reasons associated with empire, but also for international trade considerations. The most strategic point for the construction was across the fifty-mile isthmus of Panama, which, at the turn of the century, was part of the nation of Colombia. Roosevelt negotiated with the government of Colombia, sometimes threatening to take the project away and build through Nicaragua, until Colombia agreed to a treaty that would grant the United States a lease on the land across Panama in exchange for a payment of $10 million and an additional $250,000 annual rental fee. The matter was far from settled, however. The Colombian people were outraged over the loss of their land to the United States, and saw the payment as far too low. Influenced by the public outcry, the Colombian Senate rejected the treaty and informed Roosevelt there would be no canal.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_4713\" style=\"width: 643px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5696\/2015\/08\/25203920\/Pm-map.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4713\" class=\"wp-image-4713 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5696\/2015\/08\/25203920\/Pm-map.png\" alt=\"Map showing Panama and the location of the canal connecting the Gulf of Panama and the Caribbean Sea.\" width=\"633\" height=\"323\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4713\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Map showing the location of the Panama canal, connecting the Caribbean Sea above and the Pacific Ocean below.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp101309520\">Undaunted, Roosevelt chose to now wield the \u201cbig stick.\u201d\u00a0Roosevelt and Hay grew infuriated, although Colombia was acting entirely within its laws and rights. Roosevelt told Hay: \u201cI do not think the Bogot\u00e1 lot of jackrabbits should be allowed permanently to bar one of the future highways of civilization.\u201d He was prepared to use force, to invade and occupy the future canal zone.<\/p>\n<p>In October 1903, the U.S. Navy sent warships to steam off Panama\u2019s coast. On November 2, their captains were ordered to land marines, seize the Panama railroad, and block any Colombian reinforcements that might be sent to put down a Panamanian rebellion.\u00a0Within a week, Roosevelt immediately recognized the new country of Panama, welcoming them to the world community and offering them the same terms\u2014$10 million plus the annual $250,000 rental fee\u2014he had previously offered Colombia. On November 6, 1903, Philippe Bunau-Varilla, as Panama&#8217;s ambassador to the United States, signed the\u00a0Hay\u2013Bunau-Varilla Treaty, granting rights to the United States to build and indefinitely administer the Panama Canal Zone and its defenses.<\/p>\n<p>Almost immediately, the treaty was condemned by many Panamanians as an infringement on their country&#8217;s new national sovereignty.\u00a0Several parties in the United States also called this an act of war on Colombia: The\u00a0<i>New York Times<\/i>\u00a0described the support given by the United States to Bunau-Varilla as an &#8220;act of sordid conquest.&#8221;\u00a0The\u00a0<i>New York Evening Post<\/i>\u00a0called it a &#8220;vulgar and mercenary venture.&#8221;\u00a0The U.S. maneuvers are often cited as the classic example of U.S. <strong>gunboat diplomacy<\/strong>\u00a0in Latin America.<\/p>\n<p>In 1921, Colombia and the United States entered into the\u00a0Thomson\u2013Urrutia Treaty, in which the United States agreed to pay Colombia $25 million: $5 million upon ratification, and four-$5 million annual payments, and grant Colombia special privileges in the Canal Zone. In return, Colombia recognized Panama as an independent nation.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_f3f8342f-253e-4d1a-bde0-41fe715c7d3e\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/f3f8342f-253e-4d1a-bde0-41fe715c7d3e?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_f3f8342f-253e-4d1a-bde0-41fe715c7d3e\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm25709744\">Once the Panamanian victory was secured, with American support, construction on the canal began in May 1904. For the first year of operations, the United States worked primarily to build adequate housing, cafeterias, warehouses, machine shops, and other elements of infrastructure that previous French efforts had failed to consider. Most importantly, the introduction of fumigation systems and mosquito nets following Dr. Walter Reed\u2019s discovery of the role of mosquitoes in the spread of malaria and yellow fever reduced the death rate and restored flagging morale among workers and American-born supervisors. At the same time, a new wave of American engineers planned for the construction of the canal. Even though they decided to build a lock system rather than a sea-level canal, workers still had to excavate over 170 million cubic yards of earth with the use of over one hundred new rail-mounted steam shovels. Excited by the work, Roosevelt became the first sitting U.S. president to leave the country while in office. He traveled to Panama where he visited the construction site, taking a turn at the steam shovel and removing dirt. The canal opened in 1914, permanently changing world trade and military defense patterns.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_22_04_Canal\">\n<div style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203014\/CNX_History_22_04_Canal.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows the excavation of the Culebra Cut in the construction of the Panama Canal.\" width=\"390\" height=\"328\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. Recurring landslides made the excavation of the Culebra Cut one of the most technically challenging elements in the construction of the Panama Canal.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp11019392\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Watch <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=uE_UuHRtXCY\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">this Ted-Ed video to learn more about the construction of the Panama Canal<\/a>, including the extraordinary cost of human lives.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">The Roosevelt Corollary<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm156642816\">With the construction of the canal now underway, Roosevelt next wanted to send a clear message to the rest of the world\u2014and in particular to his European counterparts\u2014that the colonization of the Western Hemisphere had now ended, and that interference in the countries there would no longer be tolerated. At the same time, he sent a message to his counterparts in Central and South America that should the United States see problems erupt in the region, it would intervene in order to maintain peace and stability in the hemisphere. Specifically, the United States would guarantee fiscal stability of debt repayment, which was a mounting crisis in the early 20th century.<\/p>\n<p>Rising debts to European and American bankers allowed for the inroads of modern life but destabilized much of the region. Bankers, beginning with financial houses in London and New York, saw Latin America as an opportunity for investment. Lenders took advantage of the region\u2019s newly formed governments\u2019 need for cash and exacted punishing interest rates on massive loans, which were then sold off in pieces on the secondary bond market.\u00a0Creditors could not force settlements of loans until they successfully lobbied their own governments to get involved and forcibly collect debts. The Roosevelt administration did not want to deny the Europeans\u2019 rightful demands of repayment of debt, but it also did not want to encourage European policies of conquest in the hemisphere as part of that debt collection.\u00a0Roosevelt first tried this in 1902, when Germany and Great Britain launched a naval blockade of Venezuela in order to try and force the Venezuelan government to repay debts. Under threat, Roosevelt compelled both governments to accept arbitration over repayment.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm2862528\">Roosevelt articulated this seeming double standard in a 1904 address before Congress, in a speech that became known as the <strong>Roosevelt Corollary<\/strong>. The Roosevelt Corollary was based on the original Monroe Doctrine of the early nineteenth century, which warned European nations of the consequences of their interference in the Caribbean. In this addition, Roosevelt stated that the United States would use military force \u201cas an international police power\u201d to correct any \u201cchronic wrongdoing\u201d by any Latin American nation that might threaten stability in the region. Unlike the Monroe Doctrine, which proclaimed an American policy of noninterference with its neighbors\u2019 affairs, the Roosevelt Corollary loudly proclaimed the right and obligation of the United States to involve itself whenever necessary.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm134488480\">Roosevelt immediately began to put the new corollary to work. He used it to establish a protectorate over\u00a0Panama, as well as to direct the United States to manage the Dominican Republic\u2019s customs service revenues. Eventually, Presidents Herbert Hoover and Franklin Roosevelt softened American rhetoric regarding U.S. domination of the Western Hemisphere, with the latter proclaiming a new \u201cGood Neighbor Policy\u201d that renounced American intervention in other nations\u2019 affairs. However, subsequent presidents would continue to reference aspects of the Roosevelt Corollary to justify American involvement in Haiti, Nicaragua, and other nations throughout the twentieth century. The map below\u00a0shows the widespread effects of Roosevelt\u2019s policies throughout Latin America.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_22_04_StickMap\">\n<div style=\"width: 595px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203016\/CNX_History_22_04_StickMap.jpg\" alt=\"A map is titled \u201cU.S. Involvement in Latin America under Roosevelt.\u201d Labeled regions include Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Jamaica, Cuba, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. A label pointing to Panama reads \u201cPanama Canal Zone created (1903).\u201d A label pointing to Cuba reads \u201cPlatt Amendment (1901); Cuban-American Treaty (1903).\u201d A label pointing to the Dominican Republic reads \u201cFinancial crisis prompts first use of Roosevelt Corollary (1904\u20131905).\u201d A label pointing to Puerto Rico reads \u201cForaker Act (1900).\u201d\" width=\"585\" height=\"342\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 4<\/strong>. From underwriting a revolution in Panama with the goal of building a canal to putting troops in Cuba, Roosevelt vastly increased the U.S. impact in Latin America.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<div id=\"fs-idm23361392\" class=\"history defining-american\" data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Defining American\">\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>The Roosevelt Corollary and Its Impact<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm26801248\">In 1904, Roosevelt put the United States in the role of the \u201cpolice power\u201d of the Western Hemisphere and set a course for the U.S. relationship with Central and Latin America that played out over the next several decades. He did so with the Roosevelt Corollary, in which he stated:<\/p>\n<blockquote id=\"fs-idp30883088\">\n<div>It is not true that the United States feels any land hunger or entertains any projects as regards the other nations of the Western Hemisphere save as such are for their welfare. All that this country desires is to see the neighboring countries stable, orderly, and prosperous. Any country whose people conduct themselves well can count upon our hearty friendship.\u00a0.\u00a0.\u00a0. Chronic wrongdoing, or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may in America, as elsewhere, require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere the adherence of the United States to the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States, however, reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power.\u201d<\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p id=\"fs-idm71706096\">In the twenty years after he made this statement, the United States would use military force in Latin America over a dozen times. The Roosevelt Corollary was used as a rationale for American involvement in the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Haiti, and other Latin American countries, straining relations between Central America and its dominant neighbor to the north throughout the twentieth century.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_6dfb7c83-02ca-4502-aed3-2c0d989fd20c\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/6dfb7c83-02ca-4502-aed3-2c0d989fd20c?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_6dfb7c83-02ca-4502-aed3-2c0d989fd20c\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Review Question<\/h3>\n<section>Compare Roosevelt\u2019s foreign policy in Latin America and Asia. Why did he employ these different methods?<\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q447223\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q447223\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">Roosevelt\u2019s strategy of \u201cspeaking softly and carrying a big stick\u201d worked well in Latin America, where the United States had a strong military presence and could quickly and easily act on any threat of military action. Roosevelt\u2019s threat of force was therefore credible in that region, and he was able to wield it effectively. In Asia, however, the United States had less of a military presence. Instead, Roosevelt sought to maintain a balance of power, wherein the various Asian countries kept each other in check and no single player grew too powerful. When the power balance tipped, Roosevelt acted to broker a peace deal between Russia and Japan as a means of restoring balance.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>INteractive<\/h3>\n<p>Click through each of these slides in the interactive below to learn more about President Roosevelt and his portrayals in political cartoons of his era.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/content\/1291675389684869408\/embed\" width=\"1088\" height=\"637\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\" aria-label=\"Theodore Roosevelt in Political Cartoons\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<p><strong>gunboat diplomacy<\/strong>: the\u00a0pursuit of foreign policy objectives using displays of naval power, implying or constituting a direct threat of warfare if the other party does not comply<\/p>\n<p><strong>Panama Canal<\/strong>: a transoceanic canal in Panama that links the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; it is one of the world&#8217;s major shipping canals<\/p>\n<p><strong>Roosevelt Corollary:\u00a0<\/strong>a statement by Theodore Roosevelt that the United States would use military force to act as an international police power and correct any chronic wrongdoing by any Latin American nation threatening the stability of the region<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-196\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Zeb Larson for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Interactive: A Career Told Through Political Cartoons. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Erica Holland for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>US History. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history\">http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/1-introduction<\/li><li>Panama Canal. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Panama_Canal\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Panama_Canal<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>gunboat diplomacy. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gunboat_diplomacy\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gunboat_diplomacy<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Specific attribution<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>U.S. History. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: American YAWP. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/19-american-empire\/\">http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/19-american-empire\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Access for free at http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/19-american-empire\/<\/li><li>Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Bill of Rights Institute. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/NgBFhmUc@11.2:pHAnkICT@3\/10-8-%F0%9F%94%8E-The-Panama-Canal\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/NgBFhmUc@11.2:pHAnkICT@3\/10-8-%F0%9F%94%8E-The-Panama-Canal<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Access for free at https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/NgBFhmUc@11.2:pHAnkICT@3\/10-8-%F0%9F%94%8E-The-Panama-Canal<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":19,"menu_order":10,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"US History\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/1-introduction\"},{\"type\":\"cc-attribution\",\"description\":\"U.S. History\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"American YAWP\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/19-american-empire\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"Access for free at http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/19-american-empire\/\"},{\"type\":\"cc-attribution\",\"description\":\"Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Bill of Rights Institute\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/NgBFhmUc@11.2:pHAnkICT@3\/10-8-%F0%9F%94%8E-The-Panama-Canal\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"Access for free at https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/NgBFhmUc@11.2:pHAnkICT@3\/10-8-%F0%9F%94%8E-The-Panama-Canal\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Panama Canal\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Panama_Canal\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"gunboat diplomacy\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gunboat_diplomacy\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Zeb Larson for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Interactive: A Career Told Through Political Cartoons\",\"author\":\"Erica Holland for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"4f7937cd-e3e0-46b2-bbe4-1ea71270b063,baed14a7-6760-442d-b67e-6638665d1e0f,13aa4b0f-ec8a-4bc8-8620-d169c69530f7","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-196","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":174,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/196","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/19"}],"version-history":[{"count":34,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/196\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9104,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/196\/revisions\/9104"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/174"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/196\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=196"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=196"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=196"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=196"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}