{"id":246,"date":"2015-08-21T18:07:00","date_gmt":"2015-08-21T18:07:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/ushistory2os2xmaster\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=246"},"modified":"2022-10-20T03:03:21","modified_gmt":"2022-10-20T03:03:21","slug":"nativism-and-the-second-ku-klux-klan","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/chapter\/nativism-and-the-second-ku-klux-klan\/","title":{"raw":"Nativism and the Second Ku Klux Klan","rendered":"Nativism and the Second Ku Klux Klan"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Analyze the ways nativism affected the politics and society of the 1920s<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the revival of the KKK in the 1920s<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp6836240\">While prosperous, middle-class Americans found much to celebrate in the new era of leisure and consumption, many other Americans\u2014often those in rural areas\u2014disagreed on the meaning of a \u201cgood life\u201d and how to achieve it. They reacted to the rapid social changes of modern urban society with a vigorous defense of traditional and religious values and a fearful rejection of cultural diversity and equality.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp502864\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Nativism<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm3001824\">Beginning at the end of the nineteenth century, immigration to the United States rocketed to new heights. Many of these new immigrants were coming from eastern and southern Europe and, for many English-speaking, native-born Americans of northern European descent, the growing diversity of new languages, customs, and religions triggered anxiety and racial animosity. In reaction, some embraced <strong>nativism<\/strong>, prizing White Americans with older family pedigrees over more recent immigrants, and rejecting outside influences in favor of their own local customs. Nativists also stoked fear by casting foreign people and influences as a threat, pointing to the anarchist assassinations of the Spanish prime minister in 1897, the Italian king in 1900, and even President William McKinley in 1901 as proof. Following the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in November 1917, the sense of an inevitable foreign or communist menace only grew among those already predisposed to distrust immigrants.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp17226032\">Anxiety over the rising tide of immigration came to a head with the trial of Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti. Sacco and Vanzetti were Italian immigrants who were accused of being part of a robbery and murder in Braintree, Massachusetts, in 1920. There was no direct evidence linking them to the crime, but (in addition to being immigrants) both men were anarchists who favored the destruction of America's market-based, capitalistic system through revolutionary violence. At their trial, the district attorney emphasized Sacco and Vanzetti\u2019s radical views, and the jury found them guilty on July 14, 1921. Despite subsequent motions and appeals based on ballistics testing, recanted testimony, and an ex-convict\u2019s confession, both men were executed on August 23, 1927.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"Figure_24_02_SaccoVenz\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"585\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203105\/CNX_History_24_02_SaccoVenz.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph (a) shows Bartolomeo Vanzetti and Nicola Sacco sitting beside one another in handcuffs. Photograph (b) shows a group of men protesting in the street. Several hold a large sign that reads \u201cSave Sacco and Vanzetti \/ Protest Demonstration against Death Sentence \/ Trafalgar Square, Sunday Next at 3pm \/ Come in Your Thousands.\u201d\" width=\"585\" height=\"225\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 1.<\/strong> Bartolomeo Vanzetti and Nicola Sacco (a) sit in handcuffs at Dedham Superior Court in Massachusetts in 1923. After the verdict in 1921, protesters demonstrated (b) in London, England, hoping to save Sacco and Vanzetti from execution.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<h3>Reactions to the\u00a0Sacco and\u00a0Vanzetti Executions<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp20938544\">Opinions on the trial and judgment tended to divide along nativist-immigrant lines, with immigrants supporting the innocence of the condemned pair. The verdict sparked protests from Italian and other immigrant groups, as well as from noted intellectuals such as writer John Dos Passos, satirist Dorothy Parker, and famed physicist Albert Einstein. Muckraker Upton Sinclair based his indictment of the American justice system, the 1928 documentary novel\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Boston<\/em>, on Sacco and Vanzetti\u2019s trial, which he considered a gross miscarriage of justice. As the execution neared, the radical labor union Industrial Workers of the World called for a three-day nationwide walkout, leading to the Great Colorado Coal Strike of 1927. Protests occurred worldwide from Tokyo to Buenos Aires to London.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp15597280\">One of the most articulate critics of the trial was Harvard Law School professor Felix Frankfurter, who would go on to be appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court by Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1939. In 1927, six years after the trial, he wrote in <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Atlantic<\/em>, \u201cBy systematic exploitation of the defendants\u2019 alien blood, their imperfect knowledge of English, their unpopular social views, and their opposition to the war, the District Attorney invoked against them a riot of political passion and patriotic sentiment; and the trial judge connived at\u2014one had almost written, cooperated in\u2014the process.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nThe Library of Congress\u2019s <a href=\"https:\/\/www.loc.gov\/teachers\/classroommaterials\/presentationsandactivities\/presentations\/immigration\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">immigration collection<\/a> contains information on different immigrant groups, the timelines of their immigration, maps of their settlement routes, and the reasons they came. Click the images on the left navigation bar to learn about each group.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"260\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203107\/CNX_History_24_02_BirthNat.jpg\" alt=\"The release poster for The Birth of a Nation depicts a hooded Klansman on a hooded horse; he holds a fiery cross above his head as the horse rears back. The text reads \u201cThe Fiery Cross of the Ku Klux Klan \/ D.W. Griffith\u2019s Mighty Spectacle \/ The Birth of a Nation \/ Founded on Thomas Dixon\u2019s \u2018The Clansman.\u2019\u201d\" width=\"260\" height=\"401\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 2.<\/strong> A theatrical release poster for The Birth of a Nation, in 1915. The film glorified the role of the Ku Klux Klan in quelling the threat of Black power during Reconstruction.[\/caption]\r\n<h3>The\u00a0Emergency Immigration Act of 1921<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp14374096\">To \u201cpreserve the ideal of American homogeneity,\u201d the <strong>Emergency Immigration Act<\/strong> of 1921 introduced numerical limits on European immigration for the first time in U.S. history. These limits were based on a quota system that restricted annual immigration from any given country to 3 percent of the residents from that same country as counted in the 1910 census. The <strong>National Origins Act<\/strong> of 1924 went even further, lowering the level to 2 percent of the 1890 census, significantly reducing the share of eligible southern and eastern Europeans, since they had only begun to arrive in the United States in large numbers in the 1890s. Although New York congressmen Fiorello LaGuardia and Emanuel Celler spoke out against the act, there was minimal opposition in Congress, and both labor unions and the Ku Klux Klan supported the bill. When President Coolidge signed it into law, he declared, \u201cAmerica must be kept American.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp18506432\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\"><span style=\"orphans: 1; text-align: initial; font-size: 18.4px;\">The Ku Klux Klan<\/span><\/h2>\r\nThe concern that a white, Protestant, Anglo-Saxon United States was under siege by throngs of undesirables was not exclusively directed at fore<span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\">ig<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\">ners.\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\">Suspicions of immigrants, Catholics, and modernists contributed to a string of reactionary organizations. None so captured the imaginations of the country as the reborn Ku Klux Klan (KKK), a White supremacist organization that expanded beyond its Reconstruction Era anti-Black politics to now claim to protect American values and the American way of life from Black people, feminists (and other radicals), immigrants, Catholics, Jews, atheists, bootleggers, and a host of other imagined moral enemies.<\/span>\r\n<h3>The Birth of a Nation<\/h3>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; orphans: 1; text-align: initial; color: #373d3f;\">The sense that the country was also facing a threat from within its borders and its own citizenry was also prevalent. This sense was clearly reflected in the popularity of the 1915 motion picture, D. W. Griffith\u2019s <\/span><em style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; orphans: 1; text-align: initial; color: #373d3f;\" data-effect=\"italics\">The Birth of a Nation<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; orphans: 1; text-align: initial; color: #373d3f;\">. Based on <\/span><em style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; orphans: 1; text-align: initial; color: #373d3f;\" data-effect=\"italics\">The Clansman<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; orphans: 1; text-align: initial; color: #373d3f;\">, a 1915 novel by Thomas Dixon, the film offers a racist, White-centric view of the Reconstruction Era. The film depicts noble White southerners made helpless by northern carpetbaggers who empower freed slaves to abuse White men and violate women. The heroes of the film were the Ku Klux Klan, who saved the Whites, the South, and the nation. While the film was reviled by many African Americans and the NAACP for its historical inaccuracies and its maligning of freed slaves, it was celebrated by many Whites who accepted the historical revisionism as an accurate portrayal of Reconstruction Era oppression. After viewing the film, President Wilson reportedly remarked, \u201cIt is like writing history with lightning, and my only regret is that it is all so terribly true.\u201d<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Artistic License and the Censor<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp17259536\">In a letter dated April 17, 1915, Mary Childs Nerney, a secretary of the NAACP, wrote to a local censor to request that certain scenes be cut from <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Birth of a Nation<\/em>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<blockquote id=\"fs-idm126089248\">\r\n<div>\r\n\r\nMy dear Mr. Packard:\r\n\r\nI am utterly disgusted with the situation in regard to \u201cThe Birth of a Nation.\u201d As you will read in the next number of the Crisis, we have fought it at every possible point. In spite of the promise of the Mayor [of Chicago] to cut out the two objectionable scenes in the second part, which show a white girl committing suicide to escape from a Negro pursuer, and a mulatto politician trying to force marriage upon the daughter of his white benefactor, these two scenes still form the motif of the really unimportant incidents, of which I enclose a list. I have seen the thing four times and am positive that nothing more will be done about it. Jane Addams saw it when it was in its worst form in New York. I know of no one else from Chicago who saw it. I enclose Miss Addam\u2019s opinion.\r\n\r\nWhen we took the thing before the Police Magistrate he told us that he could do nothing about it unless it [led] to a breach of the peace. Some kind of demonstration began in the Liberty Theatre Wednesday night but the colored people took absolutely no part in it, and the only man arrested was a white man. This, of course, is exactly what Littleton, counsel for the producer, Griffith, held in the Magistrates\u2019 Court when we have our hearing and claimed that it might lead to a breach of the peace.\r\n\r\nFrankly, I do not think you can do one single thing. It has been to me a most liberal education and I purposely am through. The harm it is doing the colored people cannot be estimated. I hear echoes of it wherever I go and have no doubt that this was in the mind of the people who are producing it. Their profits here are something like $14,000 a day and their expenses about $400. I have ceased to worry about it, and if I seem disinterested, kindly remember that we have put six weeks of constant effort of this thing and have gotten nowhere.\r\n\r\nSincerely yours,\r\n\r\n\u2014Mary Childs Nerney, Secretary, NAACP\r\n\r\n<\/div><\/blockquote>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp16545488\"><strong>Think Like a Historian!<\/strong> On what grounds does Nerney request censorship? What efforts to get the movie shut down did she describe?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"424\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/Klan-Gathering1.jpg\" alt=\"This photo by popular news photographers Underwood and Underwood shows a gathering of a reported 300 Ku Klux Klansmen just outside Washington DC to initiate a new group of men into their order. The proximity of the photographer to his subjects for one of the Klan\u2019s notorious night-time rituals suggests that this was yet another of the Klan\u2019s numerous publicity stunts. Underwood and Underwood, \u201cKlan assembles Short Distance from U.S. Capitol,\u201d (ca. 1920\u2019s). Library of Congress.\" width=\"424\" height=\"238\" \/> <strong>Figure 3.<\/strong> This photo by popular news photographers Underwood and Underwood shows a gathering of a reported three hundred Ku Klux Klansmen just outside Washington DC to initiate a new group of men into their order. The proximity of the photographer to his subjects for one of the Klan\u2019s notorious night-time rituals suggests that this was yet another of the Klan\u2019s numerous publicity stunts. Underwood and Underwood, \u201cKlan assembles Short Distance from U.S. Capitol,\u201d (ca. 1920\u2019s). Library of Congress.[\/caption]\r\n<h3>The Resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp14524816\">The Ku Klux Klan, which had been dormant since the end of Reconstruction in 1877, experienced a resurgence of attention following the popularity of the film. Just months after the film\u2019s release, a second incarnation of the Klan was established at Stone Mountain, Georgia (a later site of a Confederate monument), under the leadership of William Simmons.<\/p>\r\nThis <strong>Second Ku Klux Klan<\/strong>, modeled after other fraternal organizations with elaborate rituals and a hierarchy, remained largely confined to Georgia and Alabama until 1920, when Simmons began a professional recruiting effort that resulted in individual chapters being formed across the country and membership rising to an estimated five million. The Klan now publicly eschewed violence and received mainstream support. Its embrace of Protestantism, anti-Catholicism, and anti-Semitism, and its appeals for stricter immigration policies, gained the group a level of acceptance by nativists with similar prejudices.\r\n<h3>Expansion Above the Mason-Dixon Line<\/h3>\r\nPartly in response to the migration of Black southerners to northern cities during World War I, the KKK expanded above the Mason-Dixon Line. Membership soared in Philadelphia, Detroit, Chicago, and Portland, while Klan-endorsed mayoral candidates won in Indianapolis, Denver, and Atlanta.\u00a0The Klan often recruited through fraternal organizations such as the Freemasons and through various Protestant churches. In many areas, local Klansmen visited churches of which they approved and bestowed a gift of money on the presiding minister, often during services. The Klan also enticed people to join through large picnics, parades, rallies, and ceremonies.\r\n<h3>Women of the Ku Klux Klan<\/h3>\r\nThe group was not merely a male organization: the ranks of the Klan also included many women, with chapters of its women\u2019s auxiliary in locations across the country. The Klan established a women\u2019s auxiliary in 1923 headquartered in Little Rock, Arkansas. The Women of the Ku Klux Klan mirrored the KKK in practice and ideology and soon had chapters in all forty-eight states, often attracting women who were already part of the Prohibition movement, the defense of which was a centerpiece of Klan activism.\u00a0These women\u2019s groups were active in a number of reform-minded activities, such as advocating for prohibition and the distribution of Bibles at public schools. But they also participated in more expressly Klan activities like burning crosses and the public denunciation of Catholics and Jews.\r\n<h3>Intimidation, Terrorism, and Violence<\/h3>\r\nBy 1924, this <span data-type=\"term\">Second Ku Klux Klan<\/span> had six million members in the South, West, and, particularly, the Midwest\u2014more Americans than there were in the nation\u2019s labor unions at the time. While the organization's rhetoric suggested a turn away from violence, its members continued to employ intimidation and terrorism against its victims, particularly in the South.\u00a0Members of the Klan and affiliated organizations often carried out localized and targeted acts of lynching and \u201cnightriding\u201d\u2014the physical harassment of bootleggers, union activists, civil rights workers, or any others deemed \u201cimmoral\u201d (such as suspected adulterers) under the cover of darkness or while wearing their hoods and robes. In fact, Klan violence was extensive enough in Oklahoma that Governor John C. Walton placed the entire state under martial law in 1923. Witnesses testifying before the military court disclosed accounts of Klan violence ranging from the flogging of clandestine brewers to the disfiguring of a prominent Black Tulsan for registering African Americans to vote. In Houston, Texas, the Klan maintained an extensive system of surveillance that included tapping telephone lines and putting spies in the local post office in order to root out \u201cundesirables.\u201d A mob organized and led by Klan members in Aiken, South Carolina, lynched Bertha Lowman and her two brothers in 1926, but no one was ever prosecuted: the sheriff, deputies, city attorney, and state representative all belonged to the Klan.\r\n<h3>The Middle-Class Klan<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp11045712\">Contrary to its perception of as a primarily southern and lower-class phenomenon, the second Klan had a national reach composed largely of middle-class people.\u00a0The Klan was even present in Canada, where it was a powerful force within Saskatchewan\u2019s Conservative Party. In many states and localities, the Klan dominated politics to such a level that one could not be elected without the support of the KKK. For example, in 1924, the Klan supported William Lee Cazort for governor of Arkansas, leading his opponent in the Democratic Party primary, Thomas Terral, to seek honorary membership through a Louisiana klavern so as not to be tagged as the anti-Klan candidate. In 1922, Texans elected Earle B. Mayfield, an avowed Klansman who ran openly as that year\u2019s \u201cklandidate,\u201d to the U.S. Senate. At its peak the Klan claimed between four and five million members.<\/p>\r\nThe Klan\u2019s newfound popularity proved to be fairly short-lived. Several states effectively combatted the power and influence of the Klan through anti-masking legislation, that is, laws that barred the wearing of masks publicly. As the organization faced a series of public scandals, such as when the Grand Dragon of Indiana was convicted of murdering a White schoolteacher, prominent citizens became less likely to openly express their support for the group without a shield of anonymity. More importantly, influential people and citizen groups explicitly condemned the Klan. Reinhold Niebuhr, a popular Protestant minister and conservative intellectual in Detroit, admonished the group for its ostensibly Protestant zealotry and anti-Catholicism. Jewish organizations, especially the Anti-Defamation League, which had been founded just a couple of years before the reemergence of the Klan, amplified Jewish discontent at being the focus of Klan attention. And the NAACP, which had actively sought to ban the film <em data-effect=\"italics\">The<\/em> <em data-effect=\"italics\">Birth of a Nation<\/em>, worked to lobby congress and educate the public on lynchings. Ultimately, however, it was the Great Depression that put an end to the Klan. As dues-paying members dwindled, the Klan lost its organizational power and sunk into irrelevance until the 1950s.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>WATCH It: The First Resurgence<\/h3>\r\nAfter the 1915 premiere of D.W. Griffith's \"The Birth of a Nation,\" there was a resurgence in the Ku Klux Klan in America. By the mid-1920s, nearly 4 million Americans claimed Klan membership, making them a powerful political force.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Vz5p9VE0JAk\r\n\r\nYou can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/US+history+II\/TheFirstResurgence.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cThe First Resurgence\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/57ad36e6-9af3-472b-a4de-9a91cfb45717\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/4904350d-8dc6-436a-8749-b0afdc1530a3\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3>Review Question<\/h3>\r\n<section>What was the platform of the Second Ku Klux Klan, and in what activities did they engage to promote it?\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"869000\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"869000\"]The reincarnated Ku Klux Klan championed an anti-Black, anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic, and anti-Jewish philosophy, and promoted the spread of Protestant beliefs. The Klan publicly denounced the groups they despised and continued to engage in activities such as cross-burning, violence, and intimidation, despite their public commitment to nonviolent tactics. Women\u2019s groups within the Klan also participated in various types of reform, such as advocating the prohibition of alcohol and distributing Bibles in public schools.[\/hidden-answer]<\/section><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<strong>Emergency Immigration Act:\u00a0<\/strong>1921 act that placed restrictive quotas by national origin on immigrants to America for the first time\r\n\r\n<strong>National Origins Act:\u00a0<\/strong>1924 act that dramatically reduced immigration based on the 1890 census, which disproportionately affected more conspicuously \"foreign\" immigrants from southern and eastern Europe who had just begun arriving at that time\r\n\r\n<strong>nativism:\u00a0<\/strong>the rejection of outside influences in favor of local or native customs\r\n\r\n<strong>Second Ku Klux Klan:\u00a0<\/strong>unlike the original secret terror group of the Reconstruction Era, the Second Ku Klux Klan was a nationwide movement that expressed racism, nativism, anti-Semitism, and anti-Catholicism\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Analyze the ways nativism affected the politics and society of the 1920s<\/li>\n<li>Describe the revival of the KKK in the 1920s<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp6836240\">While prosperous, middle-class Americans found much to celebrate in the new era of leisure and consumption, many other Americans\u2014often those in rural areas\u2014disagreed on the meaning of a \u201cgood life\u201d and how to achieve it. They reacted to the rapid social changes of modern urban society with a vigorous defense of traditional and religious values and a fearful rejection of cultural diversity and equality.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-idp502864\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Nativism<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm3001824\">Beginning at the end of the nineteenth century, immigration to the United States rocketed to new heights. Many of these new immigrants were coming from eastern and southern Europe and, for many English-speaking, native-born Americans of northern European descent, the growing diversity of new languages, customs, and religions triggered anxiety and racial animosity. In reaction, some embraced <strong>nativism<\/strong>, prizing White Americans with older family pedigrees over more recent immigrants, and rejecting outside influences in favor of their own local customs. Nativists also stoked fear by casting foreign people and influences as a threat, pointing to the anarchist assassinations of the Spanish prime minister in 1897, the Italian king in 1900, and even President William McKinley in 1901 as proof. Following the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in November 1917, the sense of an inevitable foreign or communist menace only grew among those already predisposed to distrust immigrants.<\/p>\n<h3>Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp17226032\">Anxiety over the rising tide of immigration came to a head with the trial of Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti. Sacco and Vanzetti were Italian immigrants who were accused of being part of a robbery and murder in Braintree, Massachusetts, in 1920. There was no direct evidence linking them to the crime, but (in addition to being immigrants) both men were anarchists who favored the destruction of America&#8217;s market-based, capitalistic system through revolutionary violence. At their trial, the district attorney emphasized Sacco and Vanzetti\u2019s radical views, and the jury found them guilty on July 14, 1921. Despite subsequent motions and appeals based on ballistics testing, recanted testimony, and an ex-convict\u2019s confession, both men were executed on August 23, 1927.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"Figure_24_02_SaccoVenz\">\n<div style=\"width: 595px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203105\/CNX_History_24_02_SaccoVenz.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph (a) shows Bartolomeo Vanzetti and Nicola Sacco sitting beside one another in handcuffs. Photograph (b) shows a group of men protesting in the street. Several hold a large sign that reads \u201cSave Sacco and Vanzetti \/ Protest Demonstration against Death Sentence \/ Trafalgar Square, Sunday Next at 3pm \/ Come in Your Thousands.\u201d\" width=\"585\" height=\"225\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1.<\/strong> Bartolomeo Vanzetti and Nicola Sacco (a) sit in handcuffs at Dedham Superior Court in Massachusetts in 1923. After the verdict in 1921, protesters demonstrated (b) in London, England, hoping to save Sacco and Vanzetti from execution.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<h3>Reactions to the\u00a0Sacco and\u00a0Vanzetti Executions<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp20938544\">Opinions on the trial and judgment tended to divide along nativist-immigrant lines, with immigrants supporting the innocence of the condemned pair. The verdict sparked protests from Italian and other immigrant groups, as well as from noted intellectuals such as writer John Dos Passos, satirist Dorothy Parker, and famed physicist Albert Einstein. Muckraker Upton Sinclair based his indictment of the American justice system, the 1928 documentary novel\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Boston<\/em>, on Sacco and Vanzetti\u2019s trial, which he considered a gross miscarriage of justice. As the execution neared, the radical labor union Industrial Workers of the World called for a three-day nationwide walkout, leading to the Great Colorado Coal Strike of 1927. Protests occurred worldwide from Tokyo to Buenos Aires to London.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp15597280\">One of the most articulate critics of the trial was Harvard Law School professor Felix Frankfurter, who would go on to be appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court by Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1939. In 1927, six years after the trial, he wrote in <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Atlantic<\/em>, \u201cBy systematic exploitation of the defendants\u2019 alien blood, their imperfect knowledge of English, their unpopular social views, and their opposition to the war, the District Attorney invoked against them a riot of political passion and patriotic sentiment; and the trial judge connived at\u2014one had almost written, cooperated in\u2014the process.\u201d<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>The Library of Congress\u2019s <a href=\"https:\/\/www.loc.gov\/teachers\/classroommaterials\/presentationsandactivities\/presentations\/immigration\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">immigration collection<\/a> contains information on different immigrant groups, the timelines of their immigration, maps of their settlement routes, and the reasons they came. Click the images on the left navigation bar to learn about each group.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"width: 270px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203107\/CNX_History_24_02_BirthNat.jpg\" alt=\"The release poster for The Birth of a Nation depicts a hooded Klansman on a hooded horse; he holds a fiery cross above his head as the horse rears back. The text reads \u201cThe Fiery Cross of the Ku Klux Klan \/ D.W. Griffith\u2019s Mighty Spectacle \/ The Birth of a Nation \/ Founded on Thomas Dixon\u2019s \u2018The Clansman.\u2019\u201d\" width=\"260\" height=\"401\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2.<\/strong> A theatrical release poster for The Birth of a Nation, in 1915. The film glorified the role of the Ku Klux Klan in quelling the threat of Black power during Reconstruction.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>The\u00a0Emergency Immigration Act of 1921<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp14374096\">To \u201cpreserve the ideal of American homogeneity,\u201d the <strong>Emergency Immigration Act<\/strong> of 1921 introduced numerical limits on European immigration for the first time in U.S. history. These limits were based on a quota system that restricted annual immigration from any given country to 3 percent of the residents from that same country as counted in the 1910 census. The <strong>National Origins Act<\/strong> of 1924 went even further, lowering the level to 2 percent of the 1890 census, significantly reducing the share of eligible southern and eastern Europeans, since they had only begun to arrive in the United States in large numbers in the 1890s. Although New York congressmen Fiorello LaGuardia and Emanuel Celler spoke out against the act, there was minimal opposition in Congress, and both labor unions and the Ku Klux Klan supported the bill. When President Coolidge signed it into law, he declared, \u201cAmerica must be kept American.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp18506432\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\"><span style=\"orphans: 1; text-align: initial; font-size: 18.4px;\">The Ku Klux Klan<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The concern that a white, Protestant, Anglo-Saxon United States was under siege by throngs of undesirables was not exclusively directed at fore<span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\">ig<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\">ners.\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\">Suspicions of immigrants, Catholics, and modernists contributed to a string of reactionary organizations. None so captured the imaginations of the country as the reborn Ku Klux Klan (KKK), a White supremacist organization that expanded beyond its Reconstruction Era anti-Black politics to now claim to protect American values and the American way of life from Black people, feminists (and other radicals), immigrants, Catholics, Jews, atheists, bootleggers, and a host of other imagined moral enemies.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3>The Birth of a Nation<\/h3>\n<h2 data-type=\"title\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; orphans: 1; text-align: initial; color: #373d3f;\">The sense that the country was also facing a threat from within its borders and its own citizenry was also prevalent. This sense was clearly reflected in the popularity of the 1915 motion picture, D. W. Griffith\u2019s <\/span><em style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; orphans: 1; text-align: initial; color: #373d3f;\" data-effect=\"italics\">The Birth of a Nation<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; orphans: 1; text-align: initial; color: #373d3f;\">. Based on <\/span><em style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; orphans: 1; text-align: initial; color: #373d3f;\" data-effect=\"italics\">The Clansman<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; orphans: 1; text-align: initial; color: #373d3f;\">, a 1915 novel by Thomas Dixon, the film offers a racist, White-centric view of the Reconstruction Era. The film depicts noble White southerners made helpless by northern carpetbaggers who empower freed slaves to abuse White men and violate women. The heroes of the film were the Ku Klux Klan, who saved the Whites, the South, and the nation. While the film was reviled by many African Americans and the NAACP for its historical inaccuracies and its maligning of freed slaves, it was celebrated by many Whites who accepted the historical revisionism as an accurate portrayal of Reconstruction Era oppression. After viewing the film, President Wilson reportedly remarked, \u201cIt is like writing history with lightning, and my only regret is that it is all so terribly true.\u201d<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Artistic License and the Censor<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp17259536\">In a letter dated April 17, 1915, Mary Childs Nerney, a secretary of the NAACP, wrote to a local censor to request that certain scenes be cut from <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Birth of a Nation<\/em>.<\/p>\n<blockquote id=\"fs-idm126089248\">\n<div>\n<p>My dear Mr. Packard:<\/p>\n<p>I am utterly disgusted with the situation in regard to \u201cThe Birth of a Nation.\u201d As you will read in the next number of the Crisis, we have fought it at every possible point. In spite of the promise of the Mayor [of Chicago] to cut out the two objectionable scenes in the second part, which show a white girl committing suicide to escape from a Negro pursuer, and a mulatto politician trying to force marriage upon the daughter of his white benefactor, these two scenes still form the motif of the really unimportant incidents, of which I enclose a list. I have seen the thing four times and am positive that nothing more will be done about it. Jane Addams saw it when it was in its worst form in New York. I know of no one else from Chicago who saw it. I enclose Miss Addam\u2019s opinion.<\/p>\n<p>When we took the thing before the Police Magistrate he told us that he could do nothing about it unless it [led] to a breach of the peace. Some kind of demonstration began in the Liberty Theatre Wednesday night but the colored people took absolutely no part in it, and the only man arrested was a white man. This, of course, is exactly what Littleton, counsel for the producer, Griffith, held in the Magistrates\u2019 Court when we have our hearing and claimed that it might lead to a breach of the peace.<\/p>\n<p>Frankly, I do not think you can do one single thing. It has been to me a most liberal education and I purposely am through. The harm it is doing the colored people cannot be estimated. I hear echoes of it wherever I go and have no doubt that this was in the mind of the people who are producing it. Their profits here are something like $14,000 a day and their expenses about $400. I have ceased to worry about it, and if I seem disinterested, kindly remember that we have put six weeks of constant effort of this thing and have gotten nowhere.<\/p>\n<p>Sincerely yours,<\/p>\n<p>\u2014Mary Childs Nerney, Secretary, NAACP<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p id=\"fs-idp16545488\"><strong>Think Like a Historian!<\/strong> On what grounds does Nerney request censorship? What efforts to get the movie shut down did she describe?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"width: 434px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"http:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/wp-content\/uploads\/Klan-Gathering1.jpg\" alt=\"This photo by popular news photographers Underwood and Underwood shows a gathering of a reported 300 Ku Klux Klansmen just outside Washington DC to initiate a new group of men into their order. The proximity of the photographer to his subjects for one of the Klan\u2019s notorious night-time rituals suggests that this was yet another of the Klan\u2019s numerous publicity stunts. Underwood and Underwood, \u201cKlan assembles Short Distance from U.S. Capitol,\u201d (ca. 1920\u2019s). Library of Congress.\" width=\"424\" height=\"238\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3.<\/strong> This photo by popular news photographers Underwood and Underwood shows a gathering of a reported three hundred Ku Klux Klansmen just outside Washington DC to initiate a new group of men into their order. The proximity of the photographer to his subjects for one of the Klan\u2019s notorious night-time rituals suggests that this was yet another of the Klan\u2019s numerous publicity stunts. Underwood and Underwood, \u201cKlan assembles Short Distance from U.S. Capitol,\u201d (ca. 1920\u2019s). Library of Congress.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>The Resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp14524816\">The Ku Klux Klan, which had been dormant since the end of Reconstruction in 1877, experienced a resurgence of attention following the popularity of the film. Just months after the film\u2019s release, a second incarnation of the Klan was established at Stone Mountain, Georgia (a later site of a Confederate monument), under the leadership of William Simmons.<\/p>\n<p>This <strong>Second Ku Klux Klan<\/strong>, modeled after other fraternal organizations with elaborate rituals and a hierarchy, remained largely confined to Georgia and Alabama until 1920, when Simmons began a professional recruiting effort that resulted in individual chapters being formed across the country and membership rising to an estimated five million. The Klan now publicly eschewed violence and received mainstream support. Its embrace of Protestantism, anti-Catholicism, and anti-Semitism, and its appeals for stricter immigration policies, gained the group a level of acceptance by nativists with similar prejudices.<\/p>\n<h3>Expansion Above the Mason-Dixon Line<\/h3>\n<p>Partly in response to the migration of Black southerners to northern cities during World War I, the KKK expanded above the Mason-Dixon Line. Membership soared in Philadelphia, Detroit, Chicago, and Portland, while Klan-endorsed mayoral candidates won in Indianapolis, Denver, and Atlanta.\u00a0The Klan often recruited through fraternal organizations such as the Freemasons and through various Protestant churches. In many areas, local Klansmen visited churches of which they approved and bestowed a gift of money on the presiding minister, often during services. The Klan also enticed people to join through large picnics, parades, rallies, and ceremonies.<\/p>\n<h3>Women of the Ku Klux Klan<\/h3>\n<p>The group was not merely a male organization: the ranks of the Klan also included many women, with chapters of its women\u2019s auxiliary in locations across the country. The Klan established a women\u2019s auxiliary in 1923 headquartered in Little Rock, Arkansas. The Women of the Ku Klux Klan mirrored the KKK in practice and ideology and soon had chapters in all forty-eight states, often attracting women who were already part of the Prohibition movement, the defense of which was a centerpiece of Klan activism.\u00a0These women\u2019s groups were active in a number of reform-minded activities, such as advocating for prohibition and the distribution of Bibles at public schools. But they also participated in more expressly Klan activities like burning crosses and the public denunciation of Catholics and Jews.<\/p>\n<h3>Intimidation, Terrorism, and Violence<\/h3>\n<p>By 1924, this <span data-type=\"term\">Second Ku Klux Klan<\/span> had six million members in the South, West, and, particularly, the Midwest\u2014more Americans than there were in the nation\u2019s labor unions at the time. While the organization&#8217;s rhetoric suggested a turn away from violence, its members continued to employ intimidation and terrorism against its victims, particularly in the South.\u00a0Members of the Klan and affiliated organizations often carried out localized and targeted acts of lynching and \u201cnightriding\u201d\u2014the physical harassment of bootleggers, union activists, civil rights workers, or any others deemed \u201cimmoral\u201d (such as suspected adulterers) under the cover of darkness or while wearing their hoods and robes. In fact, Klan violence was extensive enough in Oklahoma that Governor John C. Walton placed the entire state under martial law in 1923. Witnesses testifying before the military court disclosed accounts of Klan violence ranging from the flogging of clandestine brewers to the disfiguring of a prominent Black Tulsan for registering African Americans to vote. In Houston, Texas, the Klan maintained an extensive system of surveillance that included tapping telephone lines and putting spies in the local post office in order to root out \u201cundesirables.\u201d A mob organized and led by Klan members in Aiken, South Carolina, lynched Bertha Lowman and her two brothers in 1926, but no one was ever prosecuted: the sheriff, deputies, city attorney, and state representative all belonged to the Klan.<\/p>\n<h3>The Middle-Class Klan<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp11045712\">Contrary to its perception of as a primarily southern and lower-class phenomenon, the second Klan had a national reach composed largely of middle-class people.\u00a0The Klan was even present in Canada, where it was a powerful force within Saskatchewan\u2019s Conservative Party. In many states and localities, the Klan dominated politics to such a level that one could not be elected without the support of the KKK. For example, in 1924, the Klan supported William Lee Cazort for governor of Arkansas, leading his opponent in the Democratic Party primary, Thomas Terral, to seek honorary membership through a Louisiana klavern so as not to be tagged as the anti-Klan candidate. In 1922, Texans elected Earle B. Mayfield, an avowed Klansman who ran openly as that year\u2019s \u201cklandidate,\u201d to the U.S. Senate. At its peak the Klan claimed between four and five million members.<\/p>\n<p>The Klan\u2019s newfound popularity proved to be fairly short-lived. Several states effectively combatted the power and influence of the Klan through anti-masking legislation, that is, laws that barred the wearing of masks publicly. As the organization faced a series of public scandals, such as when the Grand Dragon of Indiana was convicted of murdering a White schoolteacher, prominent citizens became less likely to openly express their support for the group without a shield of anonymity. More importantly, influential people and citizen groups explicitly condemned the Klan. Reinhold Niebuhr, a popular Protestant minister and conservative intellectual in Detroit, admonished the group for its ostensibly Protestant zealotry and anti-Catholicism. Jewish organizations, especially the Anti-Defamation League, which had been founded just a couple of years before the reemergence of the Klan, amplified Jewish discontent at being the focus of Klan attention. And the NAACP, which had actively sought to ban the film <em data-effect=\"italics\">The<\/em> <em data-effect=\"italics\">Birth of a Nation<\/em>, worked to lobby congress and educate the public on lynchings. Ultimately, however, it was the Great Depression that put an end to the Klan. As dues-paying members dwindled, the Klan lost its organizational power and sunk into irrelevance until the 1950s.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>WATCH It: The First Resurgence<\/h3>\n<p>After the 1915 premiere of D.W. Griffith&#8217;s &#8220;The Birth of a Nation,&#8221; there was a resurgence in the Ku Klux Klan in America. By the mid-1920s, nearly 4 million Americans claimed Klan membership, making them a powerful political force.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"The First Resurgence\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Vz5p9VE0JAk?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/US+history+II\/TheFirstResurgence.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cThe First Resurgence\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_57ad36e6-9af3-472b-a4de-9a91cfb45717\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/57ad36e6-9af3-472b-a4de-9a91cfb45717?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_57ad36e6-9af3-472b-a4de-9a91cfb45717\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_4904350d-8dc6-436a-8749-b0afdc1530a3\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/4904350d-8dc6-436a-8749-b0afdc1530a3?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_4904350d-8dc6-436a-8749-b0afdc1530a3\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3>Review Question<\/h3>\n<section>What was the platform of the Second Ku Klux Klan, and in what activities did they engage to promote it?<\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q869000\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q869000\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">The reincarnated Ku Klux Klan championed an anti-Black, anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic, and anti-Jewish philosophy, and promoted the spread of Protestant beliefs. The Klan publicly denounced the groups they despised and continued to engage in activities such as cross-burning, violence, and intimidation, despite their public commitment to nonviolent tactics. Women\u2019s groups within the Klan also participated in various types of reform, such as advocating the prohibition of alcohol and distributing Bibles in public schools.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Emergency Immigration Act:\u00a0<\/strong>1921 act that placed restrictive quotas by national origin on immigrants to America for the first time<\/p>\n<p><strong>National Origins Act:\u00a0<\/strong>1924 act that dramatically reduced immigration based on the 1890 census, which disproportionately affected more conspicuously &#8220;foreign&#8221; immigrants from southern and eastern Europe who had just begun arriving at that time<\/p>\n<p><strong>nativism:\u00a0<\/strong>the rejection of outside influences in favor of local or native customs<\/p>\n<p><strong>Second Ku Klux Klan:\u00a0<\/strong>unlike the original secret terror group of the Reconstruction Era, the Second Ku Klux Klan was a nationwide movement that expressed racism, nativism, anti-Semitism, and anti-Catholicism<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-246\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Yasmin. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>US History. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history\">http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>US History. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: The American YAWP. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/22-the-twenties\/\">https:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/22-the-twenties\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>The First Resurgence. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: American Experience | PBS. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Vz5p9VE0JAk\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Vz5p9VE0JAk<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>All Rights Reserved<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":19,"menu_order":7,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"US History\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"US History\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"The American YAWP\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/22-the-twenties\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Yasmin\",\"organization\":\"Lumen 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