{"id":336,"date":"2015-08-21T18:07:00","date_gmt":"2015-08-21T18:07:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/ushistory2os2xmaster\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=336"},"modified":"2022-09-22T18:22:39","modified_gmt":"2022-09-22T18:22:39","slug":"the-challenges-of-peacetime","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/chapter\/the-challenges-of-peacetime\/","title":{"raw":"Truman and The Challenges of Peacetime","rendered":"Truman and The Challenges of Peacetime"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe the changes in American life during post-WWII demobilization<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the political and economic policies of the early postwar years under the Truman administration<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_28_01_Timeline\" class=\"timeline\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"780\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203251\/CNX_History_28_01_Timeline.jpg\" alt=\"A timeline shows important events of the era. In 1946, George Kennan sends the Long Telegram from Moscow. In 1947, the Truman Doctrine is announced, and the first Levittown house is sold; an aerial photograph of Levittown, Pennsylvania, shows many rows of similar houses. In 1948, the Berlin Airlift begins; a photograph shows Berlin residents, watching as a plane above them prepares to land with needed supplies. In 1950, North Korean troops cross the thirty-eighth parallel. In 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower is elected president; a photograph of Eisenhower is shown. In 1953, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are executed for espionage; a photograph of the Rosenbergs behind a metal gate is shown. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court rules on Brown v. Board of Education, and Bill Haley and His Comets record \u201cRock Around the Clock\u201d; a photograph of Bill Haley and His Comets is shown. In 1957, Little Rock\u2019s Central High School integrates, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) launches Sputnik; a photograph of American soldiers escorting the Little Rock Nine up a flight of stairs is shown, and a photograph of a replica of Sputnik is shown.\" width=\"780\" height=\"424\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Major events during the early Cold War era (credit: \u201c1953\u201d: modification of work by Library of Congress).[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp73319056\">The decade and a half immediately following the end of World War II was one in which middle- and working-class Americans hoped for a better life than the one they lived before the war. These hopes were tainted by fears of economic hardship, as many who experienced the Great Depression feared a return to economic decline. Others clamored for the opportunity to spend the savings they had accumulated through long hours on the job during the war when consumer goods were rarely available.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp29865664\">African Americans who had served in the armed forces and worked in the defense industry did not wish to return to \u201cnormal.\u201d Instead, they wanted the same rights and opportunities that other Americans had. Still other citizens were less concerned with the economy or civil rights; instead, they looked with suspicion at the Soviet presence in Eastern Europe. What would happen now that the United States and the Soviet Union were no longer allies, and the other nations that had long helped maintain a balance of power were left seriously damaged by the war? Harry Truman, president for less than a year when the war ended, was charged with addressing all of these concerns and giving the American people a \u201cfair deal.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Demobilization and the Return to Civilian Life<\/h2>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm100388304\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm7126240\">The most immediate task to be completed after World War II was demobilizing the military and reintegrating veterans into civilian life. \u00a0In response to popular pressure and concerns over the budget, the United States sought to demobilize its armed forces as quickly as possible. Many servicemen, labeled the \u201cOhio boys\u201d (Over the Hill in October), threatened to vote Republican if they were not home by Christmas 1946. Understandably, this placed a great deal of pressure on the still-inexperienced president to shrink the size of the U.S. military.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp136837216\">Not everyone wanted the government to reduce America\u2019s military might, however. Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal and Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson warned Truman in October 1945 that an overly rapid demobilization jeopardized the nation\u2019s strategic position in the world. While Truman agreed with their assessment, he felt powerless to put a halt to demobilization. In response to mounting political pressure, the government reduced the size of the U.S. military from a high of 12 million in June 1945 to 1.5 million in June 1947\u2014still more troops than the nation ever had in arms during peacetime. Soldiers and sailors were not the only ones dismissed from service.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Women's Place in the Workforce Changes Again<\/h3>\r\nAs the war drew to a close, millions of women working the jobs of men who had gone off to fight were let go by their employers, often because the demand for war materiel had declined and because government propaganda encouraged them to go home to make way for the returning troops. While most women workers surveyed at the end of the war wished to keep their jobs (75\u201390 percent, depending on the study), many did in fact leave them. Nevertheless, throughout the late 1940s and the 1950s, women continued to make up approximately one-third of the U.S. labor force.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nThis video describes the cultural shift for women during the 1950s and the new ideal of the \"Suzy Homemaker.\"\r\n\r\n<center><iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=8202226&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=zlnH6V83QRA&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-cv9hd47c-zlnH6V83QRA\" width=\"800px\" height=\"450px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/center><center>You can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/US+history+II\/CulturalShiftWomensRolesinthe1950s.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cCultural Shift: Women's Roles in the 1950s\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/center><\/div>\r\n<h3>Challenges for Servicemen Returning Home<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm124786464\">Readjustment to postwar life was difficult for the returning troops. The U.S. Army estimated that as many of 20 percent of its casualties were psychological. Although many eagerly awaited their return to civilian status, others feared that they would not be able to resume a humdrum domestic existence after the experience of fighting on the front lines. Veterans also worried that they wouldn\u2019t find work and that civilian defense workers were better positioned to take advantage of the new jobs opening up in the peacetime economy. Some felt that their wives and children would not welcome their presence, and some children did indeed resent the return of fathers who threatened to disrupt the mother-child household. Those on the home front worried as well. Doctors warned fianc\u00e9es, wives, and mothers that soldiers might return with psychological problems that would make them difficult to live with.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp64324288\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">The GI Bill of Rights<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm43116880\">Well before the end of the war, Congress had passed one of the most significant and far-reaching pieces of legislation to ease veterans\u2019 transition into civilian life: the Servicemen\u2019s Readjustment Act, also known as the <strong>GI Bill<\/strong>. The economy had sharply contracted after World War I and American politicians and interest groups sought to avoid another economic depression this time by gradually easing returning veterans back into the civilian economy. The G.I. Bill offered a bevy of inducements to slow their influx into the civilian workforce as well as reward their service with public benefits.\u00a0Every honorably discharged veteran who had seen active duty, but not necessarily combat, was eligible to receive a year\u2019s worth of unemployment compensation. This provision not only calmed veterans\u2019 fears regarding their ability to support themselves, but it also prevented large numbers of men\u2014as well as some women\u2014from suddenly entering a job market that did not have enough positions for them. Another way that the GI Bill averted a glut in the labor market was by giving returning veterans the opportunity to pursue an education; it paid for tuition at a college or vocational school, and gave them a stipend to live on while they completed their studies.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_28_01_GIBill\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"390\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203254\/CNX_History_28_01_GIBill.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows Franklin D. Roosevelt seated at a desk signing the GI Bill, surrounded by members of Congress.\" width=\"390\" height=\"296\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Servicemen\u2019s Readjustment Act, or GI Bill, on June 22, 1944, just weeks after the Allied invasion of Normandy, France, and more than a year before the end of the war.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp56907360\">The result was a dramatic increase in the number of students\u2014especially men\u2014enrolled in American colleges and universities. In 1940, only 5.5 percent of American men had a college degree. By 1950, that percentage had increased to 7.3 percent, as more than two million servicemen took advantage of the benefits offered by the GI Bill to complete college. The numbers continued to grow throughout the 1950s. Upon graduation, these men were prepared for skilled blue-collar or white-collar jobs that paved the way for many to enter the middle class. The creation of a well-educated, skilled labor force helped the U.S. economy as well. Other benefits offered by the GI Bill included low-interest loans to purchase homes or start small businesses.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Growing Suburbs<\/h3>\r\nThe rapid growth of home ownership and the rise of suburban communities helped drive the postwar economic boom. Builders created sprawling neighborhoods of single-family homes on the outskirts of American cities. William Levitt built the first \"Levittown,\" the prototypical suburban community, in 1946 in Long Island, New York. Purchasing large acreage, subdividing lots, and contracting crews to build countless homes at economies of scale, Levitt offered affordable suburban housing to veterans and their families. Levitt became the prophet of the new suburbs, and his model of large-scale development was duplicated by developers across the country.\r\n<h3>Some Veterans Still Faced Discrimination<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp91201760\">However, not all veterans were able to take advantage of the GI Bill.\u00a0Indirectly, since the military limited the number of female personnel, men qualified for the bill\u2019s benefits in far higher numbers. Colleges also limited the number of female applicants to guarantee space for male veterans.\u00a0African American veterans could use their educational benefits only to attend schools that accepted Black students. The approximately nine thousand servicemen and women who were dishonorably discharged because they were gay or lesbian were ineligible for GI Bill benefits. Benefits for some Mexican American veterans, mainly in Texas, were also denied or delayed.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/566d9eca-04a2-48e7-8055-ce15bd530ba4\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm123901008\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Changes for Japanese Americans<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm87081216\">While most veterans received assistance to help in their adjustment to postwar life, others returned home to an uncertain future without the promise of government aid to help them resume their prewar lives. Japanese Americans from the West Coast who had been interned during the war also confronted the task of rebuilding their lives. In December 1944, Franklin Roosevelt declared an end to the forced relocation of Japanese Americans, and as of January 1945, they were free to return to their homes. In many areas, however, neighbors clung to their prejudices and denounced those of Japanese descent as disloyal and dangerous. These feelings had been worsened by wartime propaganda, which often featured horrific accounts of Japanese mistreatment of prisoners, and by the statements of military officers to the effect that the Japanese were inherently savage. Facing such animosity, many Japanese American families chose to move elsewhere. Those who did return often found that in their absence, \u201cfriends\u201d and neighbors had sold possessions that had been left with them for safekeeping. Many homes had been vandalized and farms destroyed. When Japanese Americans reopened their businesses, former customers sometimes boycotted them.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Link to learning<\/h3>\r\nFor more on the <a href=\"https:\/\/sos.oregon.gov\/archives\/exhibits\/ww2\/Pages\/after-back.aspx\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">experiences of Japanese Americans<\/a> after internment, read about their return to communities in Oregon after World War II.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-idm51105664\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">The Fair Deal<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm110881296\">Early in his presidency, Truman sought to build on the promises of Roosevelt\u2019s New Deal. Besides demobilizing the armed forces and preparing for the homecoming of servicemen and women, he also had to guide the nation through the process of returning to a peacetime economy. To this end, he proposed an ambitious program of social legislation that included establishing a <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">federal minimum wage<\/span>, expanding Social Security and public housing, and prohibiting child labor. Wartime price controls were retained for some items but removed from others, like meat. In his 1949 inaugural address, Truman referred to his programs as the <span data-type=\"term\"><strong>Fair Dea<\/strong>l<\/span>, a nod to his predecessor\u2019s New Deal. He wanted the Fair Deal to include Americans of color and became the first president to address the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). He also took decisive steps towards extending civil rights to African Americans by establishing, by executive order in December 1946, a Presidential Committee on Civil Rights to investigate racial discrimination in the United States. Truman also desegregated the armed forces, again by executive order, in July 1948, overriding many objections that the military was no place for social experimentation.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp2888624\">Congress, however, which was dominated by Republicans and southern conservative Democrats, refused to pass more \u201cradical\u201d pieces of legislation, such as a bill providing for national healthcare. The American Medical Association spent some $1.5 million to defeat Truman\u2019s healthcare proposal, which it sought to discredit as socialized medicine in order to appeal to Americans\u2019 fear of communism. The same Congress also refused to make lynching a federal crime or outlaw the poll tax that reduced the access of poor Americans to the ballot box. Congress also rejected a bill that would have made Roosevelt\u2019s Fair Employment Practices Committee, which prohibited racial discrimination by companies doing business with the federal government, permanent. At the same time, they passed many conservative pieces of legislation. For example, the Taft-Hartley Act, which limited the power of unions, became law despite Truman\u2019s veto.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/f1aa8a8d-a23f-41bf-8adc-898b5e9b6be7\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3>Review Question<\/h3>\r\n<section>How did the GI Bill help veterans return to civilian life? What were its limitations?\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"772409\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"772409\"]The GI Bill provided returning veterans with a year of unemployment compensation, so they did not have to worry about finding jobs immediately. It allowed them to receive low-interest loans to buy homes or start businesses, and it paid for tuition for those who wished to attend college or vocational school. However, African American veterans could use their educational benefits only to attend schools that accepted black students, and some Mexican American veterans had difficulty gaining access to their benefits. Also, because those who had received a dishonorable discharge were not eligible, thousands of gay and lesbian servicemen and women who had been dishonorably discharged for their sexual orientation were unable to receive benefits.[\/hidden-answer]<\/section><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<strong>Fair Deal:\u00a0<\/strong>President Harry Truman\u2019s program of economic and social reform\r\n\r\n<strong>GI Bill:\u00a0<\/strong>a program that gave substantial benefits to those who served in World War II\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe the changes in American life during post-WWII demobilization<\/li>\n<li>Describe the political and economic policies of the early postwar years under the Truman administration<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_28_01_Timeline\" class=\"timeline\">\n<div style=\"width: 790px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203251\/CNX_History_28_01_Timeline.jpg\" alt=\"A timeline shows important events of the era. In 1946, George Kennan sends the Long Telegram from Moscow. In 1947, the Truman Doctrine is announced, and the first Levittown house is sold; an aerial photograph of Levittown, Pennsylvania, shows many rows of similar houses. In 1948, the Berlin Airlift begins; a photograph shows Berlin residents, watching as a plane above them prepares to land with needed supplies. In 1950, North Korean troops cross the thirty-eighth parallel. In 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower is elected president; a photograph of Eisenhower is shown. In 1953, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are executed for espionage; a photograph of the Rosenbergs behind a metal gate is shown. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court rules on Brown v. Board of Education, and Bill Haley and His Comets record \u201cRock Around the Clock\u201d; a photograph of Bill Haley and His Comets is shown. In 1957, Little Rock\u2019s Central High School integrates, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) launches Sputnik; a photograph of American soldiers escorting the Little Rock Nine up a flight of stairs is shown, and a photograph of a replica of Sputnik is shown.\" width=\"780\" height=\"424\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Major events during the early Cold War era (credit: \u201c1953\u201d: modification of work by Library of Congress).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"fs-idp73319056\">The decade and a half immediately following the end of World War II was one in which middle- and working-class Americans hoped for a better life than the one they lived before the war. These hopes were tainted by fears of economic hardship, as many who experienced the Great Depression feared a return to economic decline. Others clamored for the opportunity to spend the savings they had accumulated through long hours on the job during the war when consumer goods were rarely available.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp29865664\">African Americans who had served in the armed forces and worked in the defense industry did not wish to return to \u201cnormal.\u201d Instead, they wanted the same rights and opportunities that other Americans had. Still other citizens were less concerned with the economy or civil rights; instead, they looked with suspicion at the Soviet presence in Eastern Europe. What would happen now that the United States and the Soviet Union were no longer allies, and the other nations that had long helped maintain a balance of power were left seriously damaged by the war? Harry Truman, president for less than a year when the war ended, was charged with addressing all of these concerns and giving the American people a \u201cfair deal.\u201d<\/p>\n<h2>Demobilization and the Return to Civilian Life<\/h2>\n<section id=\"fs-idm100388304\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm7126240\">The most immediate task to be completed after World War II was demobilizing the military and reintegrating veterans into civilian life. \u00a0In response to popular pressure and concerns over the budget, the United States sought to demobilize its armed forces as quickly as possible. Many servicemen, labeled the \u201cOhio boys\u201d (Over the Hill in October), threatened to vote Republican if they were not home by Christmas 1946. Understandably, this placed a great deal of pressure on the still-inexperienced president to shrink the size of the U.S. military.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp136837216\">Not everyone wanted the government to reduce America\u2019s military might, however. Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal and Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson warned Truman in October 1945 that an overly rapid demobilization jeopardized the nation\u2019s strategic position in the world. While Truman agreed with their assessment, he felt powerless to put a halt to demobilization. In response to mounting political pressure, the government reduced the size of the U.S. military from a high of 12 million in June 1945 to 1.5 million in June 1947\u2014still more troops than the nation ever had in arms during peacetime. Soldiers and sailors were not the only ones dismissed from service.<\/p>\n<h3>Women&#8217;s Place in the Workforce Changes Again<\/h3>\n<p>As the war drew to a close, millions of women working the jobs of men who had gone off to fight were let go by their employers, often because the demand for war materiel had declined and because government propaganda encouraged them to go home to make way for the returning troops. While most women workers surveyed at the end of the war wished to keep their jobs (75\u201390 percent, depending on the study), many did in fact leave them. Nevertheless, throughout the late 1940s and the 1950s, women continued to make up approximately one-third of the U.S. labor force.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>This video describes the cultural shift for women during the 1950s and the new ideal of the &#8220;Suzy Homemaker.&#8221;<\/p>\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=8202226&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=zlnH6V83QRA&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-cv9hd47c-zlnH6V83QRA\" width=\"800px\" height=\"450px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">You can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/US+history+II\/CulturalShiftWomensRolesinthe1950s.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cCultural Shift: Women&#8217;s Roles in the 1950s\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Challenges for Servicemen Returning Home<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm124786464\">Readjustment to postwar life was difficult for the returning troops. The U.S. Army estimated that as many of 20 percent of its casualties were psychological. Although many eagerly awaited their return to civilian status, others feared that they would not be able to resume a humdrum domestic existence after the experience of fighting on the front lines. Veterans also worried that they wouldn\u2019t find work and that civilian defense workers were better positioned to take advantage of the new jobs opening up in the peacetime economy. Some felt that their wives and children would not welcome their presence, and some children did indeed resent the return of fathers who threatened to disrupt the mother-child household. Those on the home front worried as well. Doctors warned fianc\u00e9es, wives, and mothers that soldiers might return with psychological problems that would make them difficult to live with.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-idp64324288\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">The GI Bill of Rights<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm43116880\">Well before the end of the war, Congress had passed one of the most significant and far-reaching pieces of legislation to ease veterans\u2019 transition into civilian life: the Servicemen\u2019s Readjustment Act, also known as the <strong>GI Bill<\/strong>. The economy had sharply contracted after World War I and American politicians and interest groups sought to avoid another economic depression this time by gradually easing returning veterans back into the civilian economy. The G.I. Bill offered a bevy of inducements to slow their influx into the civilian workforce as well as reward their service with public benefits.\u00a0Every honorably discharged veteran who had seen active duty, but not necessarily combat, was eligible to receive a year\u2019s worth of unemployment compensation. This provision not only calmed veterans\u2019 fears regarding their ability to support themselves, but it also prevented large numbers of men\u2014as well as some women\u2014from suddenly entering a job market that did not have enough positions for them. Another way that the GI Bill averted a glut in the labor market was by giving returning veterans the opportunity to pursue an education; it paid for tuition at a college or vocational school, and gave them a stipend to live on while they completed their studies.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_28_01_GIBill\">\n<div style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203254\/CNX_History_28_01_GIBill.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows Franklin D. Roosevelt seated at a desk signing the GI Bill, surrounded by members of Congress.\" width=\"390\" height=\"296\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Servicemen\u2019s Readjustment Act, or GI Bill, on June 22, 1944, just weeks after the Allied invasion of Normandy, France, and more than a year before the end of the war.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"fs-idp56907360\">The result was a dramatic increase in the number of students\u2014especially men\u2014enrolled in American colleges and universities. In 1940, only 5.5 percent of American men had a college degree. By 1950, that percentage had increased to 7.3 percent, as more than two million servicemen took advantage of the benefits offered by the GI Bill to complete college. The numbers continued to grow throughout the 1950s. Upon graduation, these men were prepared for skilled blue-collar or white-collar jobs that paved the way for many to enter the middle class. The creation of a well-educated, skilled labor force helped the U.S. economy as well. Other benefits offered by the GI Bill included low-interest loans to purchase homes or start small businesses.<\/p>\n<h3>Growing Suburbs<\/h3>\n<p>The rapid growth of home ownership and the rise of suburban communities helped drive the postwar economic boom. Builders created sprawling neighborhoods of single-family homes on the outskirts of American cities. William Levitt built the first &#8220;Levittown,&#8221; the prototypical suburban community, in 1946 in Long Island, New York. Purchasing large acreage, subdividing lots, and contracting crews to build countless homes at economies of scale, Levitt offered affordable suburban housing to veterans and their families. Levitt became the prophet of the new suburbs, and his model of large-scale development was duplicated by developers across the country.<\/p>\n<h3>Some Veterans Still Faced Discrimination<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp91201760\">However, not all veterans were able to take advantage of the GI Bill.\u00a0Indirectly, since the military limited the number of female personnel, men qualified for the bill\u2019s benefits in far higher numbers. Colleges also limited the number of female applicants to guarantee space for male veterans.\u00a0African American veterans could use their educational benefits only to attend schools that accepted Black students. The approximately nine thousand servicemen and women who were dishonorably discharged because they were gay or lesbian were ineligible for GI Bill benefits. Benefits for some Mexican American veterans, mainly in Texas, were also denied or delayed.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_566d9eca-04a2-48e7-8055-ce15bd530ba4\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/566d9eca-04a2-48e7-8055-ce15bd530ba4?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_566d9eca-04a2-48e7-8055-ce15bd530ba4\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm123901008\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Changes for Japanese Americans<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm87081216\">While most veterans received assistance to help in their adjustment to postwar life, others returned home to an uncertain future without the promise of government aid to help them resume their prewar lives. Japanese Americans from the West Coast who had been interned during the war also confronted the task of rebuilding their lives. In December 1944, Franklin Roosevelt declared an end to the forced relocation of Japanese Americans, and as of January 1945, they were free to return to their homes. In many areas, however, neighbors clung to their prejudices and denounced those of Japanese descent as disloyal and dangerous. These feelings had been worsened by wartime propaganda, which often featured horrific accounts of Japanese mistreatment of prisoners, and by the statements of military officers to the effect that the Japanese were inherently savage. Facing such animosity, many Japanese American families chose to move elsewhere. Those who did return often found that in their absence, \u201cfriends\u201d and neighbors had sold possessions that had been left with them for safekeeping. Many homes had been vandalized and farms destroyed. When Japanese Americans reopened their businesses, former customers sometimes boycotted them.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Link to learning<\/h3>\n<p>For more on the <a href=\"https:\/\/sos.oregon.gov\/archives\/exhibits\/ww2\/Pages\/after-back.aspx\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">experiences of Japanese Americans<\/a> after internment, read about their return to communities in Oregon after World War II.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm51105664\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">The Fair Deal<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm110881296\">Early in his presidency, Truman sought to build on the promises of Roosevelt\u2019s New Deal. Besides demobilizing the armed forces and preparing for the homecoming of servicemen and women, he also had to guide the nation through the process of returning to a peacetime economy. To this end, he proposed an ambitious program of social legislation that included establishing a <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">federal minimum wage<\/span>, expanding Social Security and public housing, and prohibiting child labor. Wartime price controls were retained for some items but removed from others, like meat. In his 1949 inaugural address, Truman referred to his programs as the <span data-type=\"term\"><strong>Fair Dea<\/strong>l<\/span>, a nod to his predecessor\u2019s New Deal. He wanted the Fair Deal to include Americans of color and became the first president to address the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). He also took decisive steps towards extending civil rights to African Americans by establishing, by executive order in December 1946, a Presidential Committee on Civil Rights to investigate racial discrimination in the United States. Truman also desegregated the armed forces, again by executive order, in July 1948, overriding many objections that the military was no place for social experimentation.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp2888624\">Congress, however, which was dominated by Republicans and southern conservative Democrats, refused to pass more \u201cradical\u201d pieces of legislation, such as a bill providing for national healthcare. The American Medical Association spent some $1.5 million to defeat Truman\u2019s healthcare proposal, which it sought to discredit as socialized medicine in order to appeal to Americans\u2019 fear of communism. The same Congress also refused to make lynching a federal crime or outlaw the poll tax that reduced the access of poor Americans to the ballot box. Congress also rejected a bill that would have made Roosevelt\u2019s Fair Employment Practices Committee, which prohibited racial discrimination by companies doing business with the federal government, permanent. At the same time, they passed many conservative pieces of legislation. For example, the Taft-Hartley Act, which limited the power of unions, became law despite Truman\u2019s veto.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_f1aa8a8d-a23f-41bf-8adc-898b5e9b6be7\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/f1aa8a8d-a23f-41bf-8adc-898b5e9b6be7?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_f1aa8a8d-a23f-41bf-8adc-898b5e9b6be7\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3>Review Question<\/h3>\n<section>How did the GI Bill help veterans return to civilian life? What were its limitations?<\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q772409\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q772409\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">The GI Bill provided returning veterans with a year of unemployment compensation, so they did not have to worry about finding jobs immediately. It allowed them to receive low-interest loans to buy homes or start businesses, and it paid for tuition for those who wished to attend college or vocational school. However, African American veterans could use their educational benefits only to attend schools that accepted black students, and some Mexican American veterans had difficulty gaining access to their benefits. Also, because those who had received a dishonorable discharge were not eligible, thousands of gay and lesbian servicemen and women who had been dishonorably discharged for their sexual orientation were unable to receive benefits.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Fair Deal:\u00a0<\/strong>President Harry Truman\u2019s program of economic and social reform<\/p>\n<p><strong>GI Bill:\u00a0<\/strong>a program that gave substantial benefits to those who served in World War II<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-336\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Scott Barr for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>US History. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history\">http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/1-introduction<\/li><li>World War II: Toward a Postwar World. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: The American Yawp. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/24-world-war-ii\/\">https:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/24-world-war-ii\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>The Affluent Society. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: The American Yawp. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/26-the-affluent-society\/\">https:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/26-the-affluent-society\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Cultural Shift: Women&#039;s Roles in the 1950s. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: NBC News Learn. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=zlnH6V83QRA\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=zlnH6V83QRA<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":19,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"US History\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/1-introduction\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"World War II: Toward a Postwar World\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"The American Yawp\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/24-world-war-ii\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"The Affluent Society\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"The American Yawp\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.americanyawp.com\/text\/26-the-affluent-society\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Cultural Shift: Women\\'s Roles in the 1950s\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"NBC News Learn\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=zlnH6V83QRA\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Scott Barr for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"1392addf-96f2-42ee-9296-047516f00db3,c2b2d2af-5587-4b98-9590-2c16029e9155,0626c502-bdde-4c97-83ab-4ed945032b0a","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-336","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":331,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/336","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/19"}],"version-history":[{"count":41,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/336\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9527,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/336\/revisions\/9527"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/331"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/336\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=336"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=336"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=336"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=336"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}