{"id":4216,"date":"2022-02-15T16:00:29","date_gmt":"2022-02-15T16:00:29","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=4216"},"modified":"2022-09-15T16:55:17","modified_gmt":"2022-09-15T16:55:17","slug":"a-segregated-america","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/chapter\/a-segregated-america\/","title":{"raw":"A Segregated America","rendered":"A Segregated America"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe discriminatory policies towards Black Americans during the Jim Crow era,\u00a0including the challenges of disenfranchisement and segregation<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Black Americans during the Progressive Era<\/h2>\r\nAfrican Americans had initially been hopeful during Reconstruction after the Civil War. The Thirteenth Amendment ended slavery in the United States, the Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed equal protection under the law and the rights of citizens, and the Fifteenth Amendment granted Black male suffrage. African Americans were elected to local, state, and even national offices, and Congress passed civil rights legislation. However, the hopes of Reconstruction were dashed by horrific waves of violence against African Americans, the economic struggles of sharecropping (which, in some ways, resembled the conditions of slavery), the denial of equal civil rights including voting rights, and enforced segregation of the races. At the turn of the century, the new progressive reform movement heralded many changes, but whether African Americans would benefit from progressivism remained to be seen.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp113731488\">America\u2019s tragic racial history was not erased by the Progressive Era. In fact, in all too many ways, reform distanced African Americans even farther from American public life. Racial mob violence permeated much of the \u201cNew South\u201d\u2014and, to a lesser extent, the West, where Mexican Americans and other immigrant groups also suffered severe discrimination and violence\u2014by the late nineteenth century. The Ku Klux Klan and a system of Jim Crow laws governed much of the South (discussed in a previous module). White middle-class reformers were appalled at the violence of race relations in the nation but typically shared the belief in racial characteristics and the superiority of Anglo-Saxon White people over African Americans, Asians, \u201cethnic\u201d Europeans, Indigenous peoples, and Latin American populations. Southern reformers considered segregation a Progressive solution to racial violence; across the nation, educated middle-class Americans enthusiastically followed the work of <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">eugenicists<\/span> who identified virtually all human behavior as inheritable traits and issued awards at county fairs to families and individuals for their \u201cracial fitness.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Disenfranchisement<\/h3>\r\nIn the South, electoral politics remained a parade of electoral fraud, voter intimidation, and race-baiting. Democratic Party candidates stirred southern Whites into a frenzy with warnings of \u201cnegro domination\u201d and of Black men violating White women. The region\u2019s culture of racial violence and the rise of lynching as a mass public spectacle accelerated. And as the remaining African American voters threatened the dominance of Democratic leadership in the South, southern Democrats turned to what many White southerners understood as a series of progressive electoral and social reforms\u2014<strong>disenfranchisement<\/strong> and <strong>segregation<\/strong>. Just as reformers would clean up politics by taming city political machines, White southerners would \u201cpurify\u201d the ballot box by restricting Black voting, and they would prevent racial strife by legislating the social separation of the races.\r\n\r\nThe question was how the southern states would accomplish disfranchisement. The Fifteenth Amendment clearly prohibited states from denying any citizen the right to vote on the basis of race. In 1890, a Mississippi state newspaper called on politicians to devise \u201csome legal defensible substitute for the abhorrent and evil methods on which White supremacy lies.\u201d[footnote]Edward Ayers, <em>The Promise of the New South<\/em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 147.[\/footnote]\u00a0The state\u2019s Democratic Party responded with a new state constitution designed to purge corruption at the ballot box through disenfranchisement. African Americans hoping to vote in Mississippi would have to jump through a series of hurdles explicitly designed to exclude them from political power:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The state first established a <strong>poll tax<\/strong>, which required voters to pay for the privilege of voting.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Second, it stripped suffrage from those convicted of petty crimes most common among the state\u2019s African Americans. Keep in mind, that many Black people were unjustifiably charged with crimes.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Next, the state required voters to pass a literacy test. Local voting officials, who were themselves part of the local party machine, were responsible for judging whether voters were able to read and understand a section of the Constitution. In order to protect illiterate White people from exclusion, the so-called \u201cunderstanding clause\u201d allowed a voter to qualify if they could adequately explain the meaning of a section that was read to them.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIn practice, these rules were systematically abused to the point where local election officials effectively wielded the power to permit and deny suffrage at will. The disenfranchisement laws effectively moved electoral conflict from the ballot box, where public attention was greatest, to the voting registrar, where supposedly color-blind laws allowed local party officials to deny the ballot without the appearance of fraud.\r\n<h3>Segregation in the Jim Crow South<\/h3>\r\nAt the same time that the South\u2019s Democratic leaders were adopting the tools to disenfranchise the region\u2019s Black voters, these same legislatures were constructing a system of racial segregation even more pernicious. While it built on earlier exclusionary practices, segregation took on a new character as part of a modern, urban system of enforcing racial subordination and deference.\r\n\r\nAs with disenfranchisement, segregation violated a plain reading of the Constitution\u2014in this case, the Fourteenth Amendment. Here the Supreme Court intervened, ruling in the\u00a0<em>Civil Rights Cases<\/em>\u00a0(1883) that the Fourteenth Amendment only prevented discrimination directly by states. It did not prevent discrimination by individuals, businesses, or other entities. Southern states exploited this interpretation with the first legal segregation of railroad cars in 1888.\r\n<h3><em><strong>Plessy v. Ferguson<\/strong><\/em><\/h3>\r\nIn <strong>Plessy v Ferguson<\/strong>, a case that reached the Supreme Court in 1896, New Orleans resident Homer Plessy challenged the constitutionality of Louisiana\u2019s segregation of streetcars. The court ruled against Plessy and, in the process, established the legal principle of separate but equal. Racially segregated facilities were legal provided they were equal in quality. In practice, this was almost never the case. The court\u2019s majority defended its position with logic that reflected the racial assumptions of the day. \u201cIf one race be inferior to the other socially,\u201d the court explained, \u201cthe Constitution of the United States cannot put them upon the same plane.\u201d Justice John Harlan, the lone dissenter, countered, \u201cOur Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens. In respect of civil rights, all citizens are equal before the law.\u201d Harlan went on to warn that the court\u2019s decision would \u201cpermit the seeds of race hatred to be planted under the sanction of law.\u201d[footnote]<em>Plessy v. Ferguson<\/em>, 163 U.S. 537 (1896).[\/footnote]\u00a0In their rush to fulfill Harlan\u2019s prophecy, southern White people codified and enforced the segregation of public spaces.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>WATCH IT<\/h3>\r\nFollowing the Civil War, the U.S. government passed the \"Reconstruction Amendments,\" the 13th, 14th, and 15th, which were designed to create and protect opportunities for African Americans. However, southern states found loopholes to these amendments and ushered in racial segregation and discrimination\u2014the era of \"Jim Crow.\" This mistreatment and discrimination toward Black people became codified following the ruling in the <em>Plessy v. Ferguson<\/em> court case. Watch this video to learn the details about the case.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=nbZUQGPMTjk&amp;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtNYJO8JWpXO2JP0ezgxsrJJ&amp;index=22\r\n\r\nYou can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/US+history+II\/PlessyvFergusonandSegregationCrashCourseBlack.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cPlessy v Ferguson and Segregation: Crash Course Black American History #21\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nSegregation was built on a fiction\u2014that there could be a White South socially and culturally distinct from African Americans. Its legal basis rested on the constitutional fallacy of \u201cseparate but equal.\u201d Southern Whites erected a bulwark of White supremacy that would last for nearly sixty years. Segregation and disenfranchisement in the South rejected Black citizenship and relegated Black social and cultural life to segregated spaces. African Americans lived divided lives, acting the part White people demanded of them in public, while maintaining their own world apart from White people. This segregated world provided a measure of independence for the region\u2019s growing Black middle class, yet at the cost of poisoning the relationship between Black and White citizens. Segregation and disenfranchisement created entrenched structures of racism that invalidated the premises of Reconstruction.\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>LINK TO LEARNING<\/h3>\r\nBrowse the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ferris.edu\/HTMLS\/news\/jimcrow\/what2.htm\">image gallery of the Jim Crow Museum<\/a>, sponsored by Ferris State University in Michigan, to see photographic evidence of racial segregation and discrimination throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nIt was against this oppressive tide that African American leaders developed their own voice in the Progressive Era, working along diverse paths to improve the lives and conditions of African Americans throughout the country.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/dbfd0f6c-db58-41a1-8a8d-70eb78652cf3\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<strong>disenfranchisement: <\/strong>the act of being stripped of the right to vote\r\n\r\n<strong>Plessy v. Ferguson<\/strong>: a landmark Supreme Court case that upheld the 1890 Separate Car Act in Louisiana, which required White and Black passengers to travel in separate train cars. The case's decision established the doctrine of \"Separate But Equal,\" legalizing segregation in public facilities as long as those facilities were equal in quality for both Black and White individuals. This court case ushered in the era of Jim Crow.\r\n\r\n<strong>poll tax<\/strong>: A fee required to be paid in order to vote in an election\r\n\r\n<strong>segregation:<\/strong> legally\u00a0enforced racial separation\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe discriminatory policies towards Black Americans during the Jim Crow era,\u00a0including the challenges of disenfranchisement and segregation<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Black Americans during the Progressive Era<\/h2>\n<p>African Americans had initially been hopeful during Reconstruction after the Civil War. The Thirteenth Amendment ended slavery in the United States, the Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed equal protection under the law and the rights of citizens, and the Fifteenth Amendment granted Black male suffrage. African Americans were elected to local, state, and even national offices, and Congress passed civil rights legislation. However, the hopes of Reconstruction were dashed by horrific waves of violence against African Americans, the economic struggles of sharecropping (which, in some ways, resembled the conditions of slavery), the denial of equal civil rights including voting rights, and enforced segregation of the races. At the turn of the century, the new progressive reform movement heralded many changes, but whether African Americans would benefit from progressivism remained to be seen.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp113731488\">America\u2019s tragic racial history was not erased by the Progressive Era. In fact, in all too many ways, reform distanced African Americans even farther from American public life. Racial mob violence permeated much of the \u201cNew South\u201d\u2014and, to a lesser extent, the West, where Mexican Americans and other immigrant groups also suffered severe discrimination and violence\u2014by the late nineteenth century. The Ku Klux Klan and a system of Jim Crow laws governed much of the South (discussed in a previous module). White middle-class reformers were appalled at the violence of race relations in the nation but typically shared the belief in racial characteristics and the superiority of Anglo-Saxon White people over African Americans, Asians, \u201cethnic\u201d Europeans, Indigenous peoples, and Latin American populations. Southern reformers considered segregation a Progressive solution to racial violence; across the nation, educated middle-class Americans enthusiastically followed the work of <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">eugenicists<\/span> who identified virtually all human behavior as inheritable traits and issued awards at county fairs to families and individuals for their \u201cracial fitness.\u201d<\/p>\n<h3>Disenfranchisement<\/h3>\n<p>In the South, electoral politics remained a parade of electoral fraud, voter intimidation, and race-baiting. Democratic Party candidates stirred southern Whites into a frenzy with warnings of \u201cnegro domination\u201d and of Black men violating White women. The region\u2019s culture of racial violence and the rise of lynching as a mass public spectacle accelerated. And as the remaining African American voters threatened the dominance of Democratic leadership in the South, southern Democrats turned to what many White southerners understood as a series of progressive electoral and social reforms\u2014<strong>disenfranchisement<\/strong> and <strong>segregation<\/strong>. Just as reformers would clean up politics by taming city political machines, White southerners would \u201cpurify\u201d the ballot box by restricting Black voting, and they would prevent racial strife by legislating the social separation of the races.<\/p>\n<p>The question was how the southern states would accomplish disfranchisement. The Fifteenth Amendment clearly prohibited states from denying any citizen the right to vote on the basis of race. In 1890, a Mississippi state newspaper called on politicians to devise \u201csome legal defensible substitute for the abhorrent and evil methods on which White supremacy lies.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Edward Ayers, The Promise of the New South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 147.\" id=\"return-footnote-4216-1\" href=\"#footnote-4216-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0The state\u2019s Democratic Party responded with a new state constitution designed to purge corruption at the ballot box through disenfranchisement. African Americans hoping to vote in Mississippi would have to jump through a series of hurdles explicitly designed to exclude them from political power:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The state first established a <strong>poll tax<\/strong>, which required voters to pay for the privilege of voting.<\/li>\n<li>Second, it stripped suffrage from those convicted of petty crimes most common among the state\u2019s African Americans. Keep in mind, that many Black people were unjustifiably charged with crimes.<\/li>\n<li>Next, the state required voters to pass a literacy test. Local voting officials, who were themselves part of the local party machine, were responsible for judging whether voters were able to read and understand a section of the Constitution. In order to protect illiterate White people from exclusion, the so-called \u201cunderstanding clause\u201d allowed a voter to qualify if they could adequately explain the meaning of a section that was read to them.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In practice, these rules were systematically abused to the point where local election officials effectively wielded the power to permit and deny suffrage at will. The disenfranchisement laws effectively moved electoral conflict from the ballot box, where public attention was greatest, to the voting registrar, where supposedly color-blind laws allowed local party officials to deny the ballot without the appearance of fraud.<\/p>\n<h3>Segregation in the Jim Crow South<\/h3>\n<p>At the same time that the South\u2019s Democratic leaders were adopting the tools to disenfranchise the region\u2019s Black voters, these same legislatures were constructing a system of racial segregation even more pernicious. While it built on earlier exclusionary practices, segregation took on a new character as part of a modern, urban system of enforcing racial subordination and deference.<\/p>\n<p>As with disenfranchisement, segregation violated a plain reading of the Constitution\u2014in this case, the Fourteenth Amendment. Here the Supreme Court intervened, ruling in the\u00a0<em>Civil Rights Cases<\/em>\u00a0(1883) that the Fourteenth Amendment only prevented discrimination directly by states. It did not prevent discrimination by individuals, businesses, or other entities. Southern states exploited this interpretation with the first legal segregation of railroad cars in 1888.<\/p>\n<h3><em><strong>Plessy v. Ferguson<\/strong><\/em><\/h3>\n<p>In <strong>Plessy v Ferguson<\/strong>, a case that reached the Supreme Court in 1896, New Orleans resident Homer Plessy challenged the constitutionality of Louisiana\u2019s segregation of streetcars. The court ruled against Plessy and, in the process, established the legal principle of separate but equal. Racially segregated facilities were legal provided they were equal in quality. In practice, this was almost never the case. The court\u2019s majority defended its position with logic that reflected the racial assumptions of the day. \u201cIf one race be inferior to the other socially,\u201d the court explained, \u201cthe Constitution of the United States cannot put them upon the same plane.\u201d Justice John Harlan, the lone dissenter, countered, \u201cOur Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens. In respect of civil rights, all citizens are equal before the law.\u201d Harlan went on to warn that the court\u2019s decision would \u201cpermit the seeds of race hatred to be planted under the sanction of law.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896).\" id=\"return-footnote-4216-2\" href=\"#footnote-4216-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0In their rush to fulfill Harlan\u2019s prophecy, southern White people codified and enforced the segregation of public spaces.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>WATCH IT<\/h3>\n<p>Following the Civil War, the U.S. government passed the &#8220;Reconstruction Amendments,&#8221; the 13th, 14th, and 15th, which were designed to create and protect opportunities for African Americans. However, southern states found loopholes to these amendments and ushered in racial segregation and discrimination\u2014the era of &#8220;Jim Crow.&#8221; This mistreatment and discrimination toward Black people became codified following the ruling in the <em>Plessy v. Ferguson<\/em> court case. Watch this video to learn the details about the case.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Plessy v Ferguson and Segregation: Crash Course Black American History #21\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/nbZUQGPMTjk?list=PL8dPuuaLjXtNYJO8JWpXO2JP0ezgxsrJJ\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/US+history+II\/PlessyvFergusonandSegregationCrashCourseBlack.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cPlessy v Ferguson and Segregation: Crash Course Black American History #21\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Segregation was built on a fiction\u2014that there could be a White South socially and culturally distinct from African Americans. Its legal basis rested on the constitutional fallacy of \u201cseparate but equal.\u201d Southern Whites erected a bulwark of White supremacy that would last for nearly sixty years. Segregation and disenfranchisement in the South rejected Black citizenship and relegated Black social and cultural life to segregated spaces. African Americans lived divided lives, acting the part White people demanded of them in public, while maintaining their own world apart from White people. This segregated world provided a measure of independence for the region\u2019s growing Black middle class, yet at the cost of poisoning the relationship between Black and White citizens. Segregation and disenfranchisement created entrenched structures of racism that invalidated the premises of Reconstruction.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>LINK TO LEARNING<\/h3>\n<p>Browse the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ferris.edu\/HTMLS\/news\/jimcrow\/what2.htm\">image gallery of the Jim Crow Museum<\/a>, sponsored by Ferris State University in Michigan, to see photographic evidence of racial segregation and discrimination throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>It was against this oppressive tide that African American leaders developed their own voice in the Progressive Era, working along diverse paths to improve the lives and conditions of African Americans throughout the country.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_dbfd0f6c-db58-41a1-8a8d-70eb78652cf3\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/dbfd0f6c-db58-41a1-8a8d-70eb78652cf3?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_dbfd0f6c-db58-41a1-8a8d-70eb78652cf3\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<p><strong>disenfranchisement: <\/strong>the act of being stripped of the right to vote<\/p>\n<p><strong>Plessy v. Ferguson<\/strong>: a landmark Supreme Court case that upheld the 1890 Separate Car Act in Louisiana, which required White and Black passengers to travel in separate train cars. The case&#8217;s decision established the doctrine of &#8220;Separate But Equal,&#8221; legalizing segregation in public facilities as long as those facilities were equal in quality for both Black and White individuals. This court case ushered in the era of Jim Crow.<\/p>\n<p><strong>poll tax<\/strong>: A fee required to be paid in order to vote in an election<\/p>\n<p><strong>segregation:<\/strong> legally\u00a0enforced racial separation<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-4216\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>US History. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history\">http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/1-introduction<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Plessy v Ferguson and Segregation: Crash Course Black American History #21. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=nbZUQGPMTjk&#038;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtNYJO8JWpXO2JP0ezgxsrJJ&#038;index=22\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=nbZUQGPMTjk&#038;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtNYJO8JWpXO2JP0ezgxsrJJ&#038;index=22<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-4216-1\">Edward Ayers, <em>The Promise of the New South<\/em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 147. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4216-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4216-2\"><em>Plessy v. Ferguson<\/em>, 163 U.S. 537 (1896). <a href=\"#return-footnote-4216-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":9,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Plessy v Ferguson and Segregation: Crash Course Black American History #21\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=nbZUQGPMTjk&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtNYJO8JWpXO2JP0ezgxsrJJ&index=22\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"US History\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/1-introduction\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"99a5bdfb-4519-4c9c-b63f-1531677bb382,4e4800d5-afad-4c4f-9020-42fd81425a73","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-4216","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":143,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4216","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":18,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4216\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9415,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4216\/revisions\/9415"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/143"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4216\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4216"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=4216"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=4216"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=4216"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}