{"id":5359,"date":"2022-03-16T20:00:42","date_gmt":"2022-03-16T20:00:42","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=5359"},"modified":"2022-08-25T18:40:42","modified_gmt":"2022-08-25T18:40:42","slug":"the-indian-wars-in-the-west","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/chapter\/the-indian-wars-in-the-west\/","title":{"raw":"Indian Relations in the West","rendered":"Indian Relations in the West"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul class=\"im_orderedlist\">\r\n \t<li>Describe the methods that the U.S. government used to address the \u201cIndian threat\u201d during the settlement of the West<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3876\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"445\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5696\/2015\/08\/01060633\/U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-3876\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5696\/2015\/08\/01060633\/U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"Painting of White man chasing Native Americans on horseback.\" width=\"445\" height=\"334\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Lithograph \"U.S. Army-Cavalry Pursuing Indians-1876\", ca. 1899.[\/caption]\r\n<h2>Indian Removal<\/h2>\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Back east, the popular vision of the West was of a vast and empty land. But of course, this was an exaggerated depiction. On the eve of westward expansion, as many as 250,000 American Indians, representing a variety of tribes, populated the Great Plains. Previous wars against these tribes in the early nineteenth century, as well as the failure of earlier treaties, had led to a general policy of the forcible removal of many tribes in the eastern United States. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 resulted in the infamous \u201cTrail of Tears,\u201d which saw nearly fifty thousand Seminole, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Creek Indians relocated west of the Mississippi River to what is now Oklahoma between 1831 and 1838. Building upon such a history, the U.S. government was prepared, during the era of western settlement, to deal with tribes that settlers viewed as obstacles to expansion.<\/span>\r\n\r\nDespite living within the boundaries of the United States, most Native Americans were not considered citizens. In 1868, the Fourteenth Amendment declared all persons \"born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof\" were citizens. However, the \"jurisdiction\" requirement was interpreted to exclude most Native Americans, and in 1870, the Senate Judiciary Committee further clarified the matter, and effectively declared the Fourteenth Amendment had no effect on Native tribes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-NCC_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>\r\n\r\nThe exclusion of Native people from U.S. citizenship was further established by the Supreme Court in 1884 when they\u00a0held that a Native person born a citizen of a recognized tribal nation was not born an American citizen and did not become one simply by voluntarily leaving his tribe and settling among White people.\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm6252016\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nThis video explains that the belief of American individuals exploring a western wilderness is just a myth. It reviews the forceful removal of the Indians from their homelands in the 1830s and 40s during the Trail of Tears and the sad irony that White Americans who claimed to believe in the ideals of justice and freedom had little qualms with forcibly removing America's Indigenous population.\r\n\r\n<center><iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=8159745&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=0tqOQ_MfP2s&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-flag3kvi-0tqOQ_MfP2s\" width=\"800px\" height=\"450px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/center><center>You can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/US+history+II\/The+Price+of+ExpansionThe+Men+Who+Built+AmericaFrontiersmenHistory.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cThe Price of Expansion | The Men Who Built America: Frontiersmen | History\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/center><\/div>\r\n<h2>American Indian Wars in the West<\/h2>\r\nThe \u201cIndian Wars,\u201d so mythologized in western folklore, were a series\u00a0of sporadic, localized, and often brief engagements between U.S. military forces and various Native American groups. The more sustained conflict, meanwhile, was economic and cultural.\u00a0The vast and cyclical movement across the Great Plains to hunt buffalo,\u00a0raid enemies, and trade goods was incompatible with new patterns of\u00a0American settlement and railroad construction. Thomas Jefferson\u2019s old\u00a0dream that Native American groups might live isolated in the West was, in the face\u00a0of American expansion, no longer a viable reality. Political, economic,\u00a0and even humanitarian concerns intensified American efforts to isolate\u00a0Indigenous peoples on reservations. Although Indian removal had long been a part\u00a0of federal Indian policy, following the Civil War the U.S. government\u00a0redoubled its efforts. If treaties and other forms of persistent coercion\u00a0would not work, more drastic measures were deemed necessary.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_6634\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"655\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5696\/2022\/03\/15164054\/Screen-Shot-2022-04-15-at-12.40.38-PM.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-6634 \" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5696\/2022\/03\/15164054\/Screen-Shot-2022-04-15-at-12.40.38-PM.png\" alt=\" Indian battles in the Trans Mississippi West. \" width=\"655\" height=\"500\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. This map shows the major battles between the U.S. government and Native Americans in the late nineteenth century. Look for Fort Laramie in Wyoming and for Sand Creek in the southeast corner of Colorado where the\u00a0Sand Creek Massacre occurred.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #6c64ad; font-size: 1em; font-weight: 600;\">The Great Plains Indians and The First Treaty of Fort Laramie<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4846\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"500\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5696\/2015\/08\/02164821\/Sioux-treaty-lands.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-4846 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5696\/2015\/08\/02164821\/Sioux-treaty-lands.png\" alt=\"Map showing the Black Hills area following the Treaty of Fort Laramie.\" width=\"500\" height=\"371\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. The Lakota Sioux received exclusive treaty rights to the Black Hills (present South Dakota), to the consternation of the Cheyenne and the Arapahoe who also had claims to the area.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAs settlers sought more land for farming, mining, and cattle ranching, the first strategy employed to deal with the perceived Indian threat was to negotiate settlements to move tribes out of the path of White settlers. In 1851, the chiefs of most of the Great Plains tribes (Cheyenne, Sioux, Arapaho, Crow, Assiniboine, Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nations) agreed to the <strong>First Treaty of Fort Laramie<\/strong>. This agreement established distinct tribal borders, essentially codifying the reservation system. In return for annual payments of $50,000 to the tribes (originally guaranteed for fifty years, but later revised to last for only ten) as well as the hollow promise of noninterference from westward settlers, Indians agreed to stay clear of the path of settlement and allow for some roads and forts to be developed along the Oregon Trail. Due to government corruption, many annuity payments never reached the tribes, and some reservations were left destitute and the Indigenous people on them near starving. In addition, within a decade, as the pace and number of western settlers increased, even designated reservations became prime locations for farms and mining. Rather than negotiating new treaties, settlers\u2014oftentimes backed by local or state militia units\u2014simply attacked the tribes out of fear or to force them from the land. Some Indians - the Cheyenne, Lakota Sioux, and Plains Sioux -\u00a0resisted, only to then face massacres.\r\n<h3>The Sand Creek Massacre<\/h3>\r\nFarther south, settlers inflamed tensions in Colorado. In 1851, the first Treaty of Fort Laramie secured right-of-way access for American settlers passing through on their way to California and Oregon. But a gold rush in 1858 drew approximately 100,000 White gold seekers, and they demanded new treaties be made with local Indian groups to secure land rights in the newly created Colorado Territory.\u00a0Cheyenne bands splintered over the possibility of signing a new treaty that would confine them to a reservation. Settlers, already wary of raids by powerful groups of Cheyennes, Arapahos, and Comanches, read in their local newspapers sensationalist accounts of the uprising in Minnesota happening during the Dakota War (which we'll learn more about on the next page).\r\n\r\nMilitia leader John M. Chivington warned settlers in the summer of 1864 that the Cheyenne were dangerous, urged war, and promised a swift military victory. Settlers sparked conflict and sporadic fighting broke out. The aged Cheyenne chief Black Kettle, believing that a peace treaty would be best for his people, traveled to Denver to arrange for peace talks. He and his followers traveled toward Fort Lyon in accordance with government instructions, but on November 29, 1864, Chivington ordered his seven hundred militiamen to move on the Cheyenne camp near Fort Lyon at Sand Creek. The Cheyenne tried to declare their peaceful intentions but Chivington\u2019s militia cut them down. The camp was flying both the American flag and the white flag of surrender when Chivington\u2019s troops attacked. It was a slaughter. Chivington\u2019s men killed two hundred men, women, and children.[footnote]Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado<\/em> (Lawrence: Kansas University Press, 1998.[\/footnote]\u00a0Before Chivington and his men left the area, they plundered the teepees and took the horses. After the smoke cleared, Chivington's men came back and killed many of the wounded. They also scalped many of the dead, regardless of whether they were women, children, or infants. Chivington and his men dressed their weapons, hats, and gear with scalps and other body parts. They also publicly displayed these battle trophies in Denver's Apollo Theater and area saloons.\r\n\r\nSubsequent investigations by the U.S. Army condemned Chivington\u2019s tactics and their results; however, the raid served as a model for some settlers who sought any means by which to eradicate the perceived Indian threat.\u00a0The<strong> Sand Creek Massacre<\/strong> was a national scandal, alternately condemned and applauded. News of the massacre reached other Native American groups and the American frontier erupted into violent conflict.\u00a0Following the massacre, the survivors reached the camps of the Cheyenne on the Smokey Hill and\u00a0Republican\u00a0rivers. The war pipe was smoked and passed from camp to camp among the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors in the area. In January 1865, they planned and\u00a0carried out an attack\u00a0with 1,000 warriors on Camp Rankin, at present-day\u00a0Julesburg, Colorado. This was followed by numerous raids along the\u00a0South Platte river, both east and west of Julesburg, and a second raid on the town of Julesburg in early February. The associated bands captured significant amounts of loot and killed many White settlers, including men, women, and children. The bulk of the Indians then moved north into Nebraska on their way to the\u00a0Black Hills\u00a0and the\u00a0Powder River Country.\u00a0<sup id=\"cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">The Sand Creek Massacre is one example of an act of genocide committed against the Indigenous population of America.\u00a0Genocide is the deliberate killing of a large number of people from a particular nation or ethnic group with the aim of destroying that nation or group. The goal of this and other massacres of Native Americans by the U.S. Army was to remove them from the land, making room for westward expansion of White Americans. As Colonel Chivington chillingly said, \"Damn any man who sympathizes with Indians!. . . . I have come to kill Indians, and believe it is right and honorable to use any means under God's heaven to kill Indians. . . . Kill and scalp all, big and little; nits make lice.\" The destruction of Indigenous Americans during the nineteenth century is one of the darkest, most tragic aspects of the history of the United States.\u00a0 \u00a0<\/span>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch IT<\/h3>\r\nWatch this for a review of the Sand Creek Massacre.\r\n\r\n<center><iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=8260295&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=U0UF71_-HZY&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-1hbz4r7x-U0UF71_-HZY\" width=\"800px\" height=\"450px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><\/center><center>You can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/US+history+II\/Sand+Creek+Massacre+National+Historic+Site.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cSand Creek Massacre National Historic Site\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/center><\/div>\r\n<h3>The Apache<\/h3>\r\nIn the Southwest, federal authorities struggled to contain nomadic Apache and Comanche peoples on substandard desert reservations, resorting to armed expeditions in search of dissident bands such as\u00a0<mtext>Geronimo<\/mtext>\u2019s Chiricahua Apaches. Geronimo's raids and related combat actions were a part of the prolonged period of the\u00a0Apache\u2013United States conflict, which started with American settlement in Apache lands following the end of\u00a0the war with Mexico\u00a0in 1848. Reservation life was confining to the free-moving Apache people, and they resented restrictions on their customary way of life.\u00a0Geronimo led breakouts from the reservations in an attempt to return his people to their previous nomadic lifestyle. While well-known, Geronimo was not a chief.\u00a0However, since he was a superb leader in raiding and warfare, he frequently led large numbers of men beyond his own following.\r\n\r\nWhile Geronimo\u00a0is probably the most notable Apache warrior of that time period, he was not alone. He belonged to a\u00a0Chiricahua\u00a0Apache band. After two decades of\u00a0guerrilla warfare, Cochise, one of the leaders of the Chiricahua band, chose to make peace with the U.S. He agreed to relocate his people to a reservation in the\u00a0Chiricahua Mountains. Soon afterward in 1874, Cochise died. In a change of policy, the U.S. government decided to move the Chiricahua to the\u00a0San Carlos reservation\u00a0in 1876. Half complied and the other half, led by Geronimo, escaped to Mexico. In the spring of 1877, the U.S. captured Geronimo and brought him to the San Carlos reservation. He stayed there until September 1881. As soldiers gathered near the reservation, he feared being imprisoned for previous activities. He fled the reservation with 700 Apache and went to Mexico again.\r\n\r\nDespite the surrender of Geronimo and his followers in 1886, Apache warriors continued warfare against Americans and Mexicans. The United States Cavalry had several expeditions against the Apache after 1886. During one of them,\u00a0forces under\u00a0First Lieutenant\u00a0James W. Watson\u00a0pursued mounted Apache warriors north of\u00a0Globe, Arizona, along the\u00a0Salt River.\u00a0The last\u00a0Apache\u00a0raid into the United States occurred as late as 1924 when a band of Natives, who were later caught and arrested, stole some horses from\u00a0Arizonan\u00a0settlers. This is considered to be the end of the\u00a0American Indian Wars.\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp12609536\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/content\/1291614833672395718\/embed\" width=\"1089\" height=\"445\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\" aria-label=\"Native American relations\"><\/iframe><script src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/js\/h5p-resizer.js\" charset=\"UTF-8\"><\/script>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<strong>Sand Creek Massacre:\u00a0<\/strong>a militia raid led by Colonel Chivington on an Indian camp in Colorado, flying both the American flag and the white flag of surrender; over one hundred men, women, and children were killed\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul class=\"im_orderedlist\">\n<li>Describe the methods that the U.S. government used to address the \u201cIndian threat\u201d during the settlement of the West<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_3876\" style=\"width: 455px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5696\/2015\/08\/01060633\/U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3876\" class=\"wp-image-3876\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5696\/2015\/08\/01060633\/U.S._Army-Cavalry_Pursuing_Indians-1876-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"Painting of White man chasing Native Americans on horseback.\" width=\"445\" height=\"334\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-3876\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Lithograph &#8220;U.S. Army-Cavalry Pursuing Indians-1876&#8221;, ca. 1899.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Indian Removal<\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Back east, the popular vision of the West was of a vast and empty land. But of course, this was an exaggerated depiction. On the eve of westward expansion, as many as 250,000 American Indians, representing a variety of tribes, populated the Great Plains. Previous wars against these tribes in the early nineteenth century, as well as the failure of earlier treaties, had led to a general policy of the forcible removal of many tribes in the eastern United States. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 resulted in the infamous \u201cTrail of Tears,\u201d which saw nearly fifty thousand Seminole, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Creek Indians relocated west of the Mississippi River to what is now Oklahoma between 1831 and 1838. Building upon such a history, the U.S. government was prepared, during the era of western settlement, to deal with tribes that settlers viewed as obstacles to expansion.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Despite living within the boundaries of the United States, most Native Americans were not considered citizens. In 1868, the Fourteenth Amendment declared all persons &#8220;born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof&#8221; were citizens. However, the &#8220;jurisdiction&#8221; requirement was interpreted to exclude most Native Americans, and in 1870, the Senate Judiciary Committee further clarified the matter, and effectively declared the Fourteenth Amendment had no effect on Native tribes.<sup id=\"cite_ref-NCC_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/p>\n<p>The exclusion of Native people from U.S. citizenship was further established by the Supreme Court in 1884 when they\u00a0held that a Native person born a citizen of a recognized tribal nation was not born an American citizen and did not become one simply by voluntarily leaving his tribe and settling among White people.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-idm6252016\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>This video explains that the belief of American individuals exploring a western wilderness is just a myth. It reviews the forceful removal of the Indians from their homelands in the 1830s and 40s during the Trail of Tears and the sad irony that White Americans who claimed to believe in the ideals of justice and freedom had little qualms with forcibly removing America&#8217;s Indigenous population.<\/p>\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=8159745&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=0tqOQ_MfP2s&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-flag3kvi-0tqOQ_MfP2s\" width=\"800px\" height=\"450px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">You can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/US+history+II\/The+Price+of+ExpansionThe+Men+Who+Built+AmericaFrontiersmenHistory.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cThe Price of Expansion | The Men Who Built America: Frontiersmen | History\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2>American Indian Wars in the West<\/h2>\n<p>The \u201cIndian Wars,\u201d so mythologized in western folklore, were a series\u00a0of sporadic, localized, and often brief engagements between U.S. military forces and various Native American groups. The more sustained conflict, meanwhile, was economic and cultural.\u00a0The vast and cyclical movement across the Great Plains to hunt buffalo,\u00a0raid enemies, and trade goods was incompatible with new patterns of\u00a0American settlement and railroad construction. Thomas Jefferson\u2019s old\u00a0dream that Native American groups might live isolated in the West was, in the face\u00a0of American expansion, no longer a viable reality. Political, economic,\u00a0and even humanitarian concerns intensified American efforts to isolate\u00a0Indigenous peoples on reservations. Although Indian removal had long been a part\u00a0of federal Indian policy, following the Civil War the U.S. government\u00a0redoubled its efforts. If treaties and other forms of persistent coercion\u00a0would not work, more drastic measures were deemed necessary.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_6634\" style=\"width: 665px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5696\/2022\/03\/15164054\/Screen-Shot-2022-04-15-at-12.40.38-PM.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6634\" class=\"wp-image-6634\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5696\/2022\/03\/15164054\/Screen-Shot-2022-04-15-at-12.40.38-PM.png\" alt=\"Indian battles in the Trans Mississippi West.\" width=\"655\" height=\"500\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-6634\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. This map shows the major battles between the U.S. government and Native Americans in the late nineteenth century. Look for Fort Laramie in Wyoming and for Sand Creek in the southeast corner of Colorado where the\u00a0Sand Creek Massacre occurred.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"color: #6c64ad; font-size: 1em; font-weight: 600;\">The Great Plains Indians and The First Treaty of Fort Laramie<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_4846\" style=\"width: 510px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5696\/2015\/08\/02164821\/Sioux-treaty-lands.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4846\" class=\"wp-image-4846 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5696\/2015\/08\/02164821\/Sioux-treaty-lands.png\" alt=\"Map showing the Black Hills area following the Treaty of Fort Laramie.\" width=\"500\" height=\"371\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4846\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. The Lakota Sioux received exclusive treaty rights to the Black Hills (present South Dakota), to the consternation of the Cheyenne and the Arapahoe who also had claims to the area.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>As settlers sought more land for farming, mining, and cattle ranching, the first strategy employed to deal with the perceived Indian threat was to negotiate settlements to move tribes out of the path of White settlers. In 1851, the chiefs of most of the Great Plains tribes (Cheyenne, Sioux, Arapaho, Crow, Assiniboine, Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nations) agreed to the <strong>First Treaty of Fort Laramie<\/strong>. This agreement established distinct tribal borders, essentially codifying the reservation system. In return for annual payments of $50,000 to the tribes (originally guaranteed for fifty years, but later revised to last for only ten) as well as the hollow promise of noninterference from westward settlers, Indians agreed to stay clear of the path of settlement and allow for some roads and forts to be developed along the Oregon Trail. Due to government corruption, many annuity payments never reached the tribes, and some reservations were left destitute and the Indigenous people on them near starving. In addition, within a decade, as the pace and number of western settlers increased, even designated reservations became prime locations for farms and mining. Rather than negotiating new treaties, settlers\u2014oftentimes backed by local or state militia units\u2014simply attacked the tribes out of fear or to force them from the land. Some Indians &#8211; the Cheyenne, Lakota Sioux, and Plains Sioux &#8211;\u00a0resisted, only to then face massacres.<\/p>\n<h3>The Sand Creek Massacre<\/h3>\n<p>Farther south, settlers inflamed tensions in Colorado. In 1851, the first Treaty of Fort Laramie secured right-of-way access for American settlers passing through on their way to California and Oregon. But a gold rush in 1858 drew approximately 100,000 White gold seekers, and they demanded new treaties be made with local Indian groups to secure land rights in the newly created Colorado Territory.\u00a0Cheyenne bands splintered over the possibility of signing a new treaty that would confine them to a reservation. Settlers, already wary of raids by powerful groups of Cheyennes, Arapahos, and Comanches, read in their local newspapers sensationalist accounts of the uprising in Minnesota happening during the Dakota War (which we&#8217;ll learn more about on the next page).<\/p>\n<p>Militia leader John M. Chivington warned settlers in the summer of 1864 that the Cheyenne were dangerous, urged war, and promised a swift military victory. Settlers sparked conflict and sporadic fighting broke out. The aged Cheyenne chief Black Kettle, believing that a peace treaty would be best for his people, traveled to Denver to arrange for peace talks. He and his followers traveled toward Fort Lyon in accordance with government instructions, but on November 29, 1864, Chivington ordered his seven hundred militiamen to move on the Cheyenne camp near Fort Lyon at Sand Creek. The Cheyenne tried to declare their peaceful intentions but Chivington\u2019s militia cut them down. The camp was flying both the American flag and the white flag of surrender when Chivington\u2019s troops attacked. It was a slaughter. Chivington\u2019s men killed two hundred men, women, and children.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Elliott West, The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado (Lawrence: Kansas University Press, 1998.\" id=\"return-footnote-5359-1\" href=\"#footnote-5359-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0Before Chivington and his men left the area, they plundered the teepees and took the horses. After the smoke cleared, Chivington&#8217;s men came back and killed many of the wounded. They also scalped many of the dead, regardless of whether they were women, children, or infants. Chivington and his men dressed their weapons, hats, and gear with scalps and other body parts. They also publicly displayed these battle trophies in Denver&#8217;s Apollo Theater and area saloons.<\/p>\n<p>Subsequent investigations by the U.S. Army condemned Chivington\u2019s tactics and their results; however, the raid served as a model for some settlers who sought any means by which to eradicate the perceived Indian threat.\u00a0The<strong> Sand Creek Massacre<\/strong> was a national scandal, alternately condemned and applauded. News of the massacre reached other Native American groups and the American frontier erupted into violent conflict.\u00a0Following the massacre, the survivors reached the camps of the Cheyenne on the Smokey Hill and\u00a0Republican\u00a0rivers. The war pipe was smoked and passed from camp to camp among the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors in the area. In January 1865, they planned and\u00a0carried out an attack\u00a0with 1,000 warriors on Camp Rankin, at present-day\u00a0Julesburg, Colorado. This was followed by numerous raids along the\u00a0South Platte river, both east and west of Julesburg, and a second raid on the town of Julesburg in early February. The associated bands captured significant amounts of loot and killed many White settlers, including men, women, and children. The bulk of the Indians then moved north into Nebraska on their way to the\u00a0Black Hills\u00a0and the\u00a0Powder River Country.\u00a0<sup id=\"cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">The Sand Creek Massacre is one example of an act of genocide committed against the Indigenous population of America.\u00a0Genocide is the deliberate killing of a large number of people from a particular nation or ethnic group with the aim of destroying that nation or group. The goal of this and other massacres of Native Americans by the U.S. Army was to remove them from the land, making room for westward expansion of White Americans. As Colonel Chivington chillingly said, &#8220;Damn any man who sympathizes with Indians!. . . . I have come to kill Indians, and believe it is right and honorable to use any means under God&#8217;s heaven to kill Indians. . . . Kill and scalp all, big and little; nits make lice.&#8221; The destruction of Indigenous Americans during the nineteenth century is one of the darkest, most tragic aspects of the history of the United States.\u00a0 \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch IT<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this for a review of the Sand Creek Massacre.<\/p>\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=8260295&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=U0UF71_-HZY&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-1hbz4r7x-U0UF71_-HZY\" width=\"800px\" height=\"450px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\">You can view the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/US+history+II\/Sand+Creek+Massacre+National+Historic+Site.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">transcript for \u201cSand Creek Massacre National Historic Site\u201d here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>The Apache<\/h3>\n<p>In the Southwest, federal authorities struggled to contain nomadic Apache and Comanche peoples on substandard desert reservations, resorting to armed expeditions in search of dissident bands such as\u00a0Geronimo\u2019s Chiricahua Apaches. Geronimo&#8217;s raids and related combat actions were a part of the prolonged period of the\u00a0Apache\u2013United States conflict, which started with American settlement in Apache lands following the end of\u00a0the war with Mexico\u00a0in 1848. Reservation life was confining to the free-moving Apache people, and they resented restrictions on their customary way of life.\u00a0Geronimo led breakouts from the reservations in an attempt to return his people to their previous nomadic lifestyle. While well-known, Geronimo was not a chief.\u00a0However, since he was a superb leader in raiding and warfare, he frequently led large numbers of men beyond his own following.<\/p>\n<p>While Geronimo\u00a0is probably the most notable Apache warrior of that time period, he was not alone. He belonged to a\u00a0Chiricahua\u00a0Apache band. After two decades of\u00a0guerrilla warfare, Cochise, one of the leaders of the Chiricahua band, chose to make peace with the U.S. He agreed to relocate his people to a reservation in the\u00a0Chiricahua Mountains. Soon afterward in 1874, Cochise died. In a change of policy, the U.S. government decided to move the Chiricahua to the\u00a0San Carlos reservation\u00a0in 1876. Half complied and the other half, led by Geronimo, escaped to Mexico. In the spring of 1877, the U.S. captured Geronimo and brought him to the San Carlos reservation. He stayed there until September 1881. As soldiers gathered near the reservation, he feared being imprisoned for previous activities. He fled the reservation with 700 Apache and went to Mexico again.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the surrender of Geronimo and his followers in 1886, Apache warriors continued warfare against Americans and Mexicans. The United States Cavalry had several expeditions against the Apache after 1886. During one of them,\u00a0forces under\u00a0First Lieutenant\u00a0James W. Watson\u00a0pursued mounted Apache warriors north of\u00a0Globe, Arizona, along the\u00a0Salt River.\u00a0The last\u00a0Apache\u00a0raid into the United States occurred as late as 1924 when a band of Natives, who were later caught and arrested, stole some horses from\u00a0Arizonan\u00a0settlers. This is considered to be the end of the\u00a0American Indian Wars.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp12609536\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/content\/1291614833672395718\/embed\" width=\"1089\" height=\"445\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\" aria-label=\"Native American relations\"><\/iframe><script src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/js\/h5p-resizer.js\" charset=\"UTF-8\"><\/script><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Sand Creek Massacre:\u00a0<\/strong>a militia raid led by Colonel Chivington on an Indian camp in Colorado, flying both the American flag and the white flag of surrender; over one hundred men, women, and children were killed<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-5359\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Megan Coplen for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Sand Creek Massacre. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sand_Creek_massacre#Remembrance\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sand_Creek_massacre#Remembrance<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Geronimo. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geronimo\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geronimo<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Genocide of indigenous peoples. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples#:~:text=During%20the%20American%20Indian%20Wars,time%2C%20has%20been%20called%20genocide\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples#:~:text=During%20the%20American%20Indian%20Wars,time%2C%20has%20been%20called%20genocide<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>US History. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/17-4-the-assault-on-american-indian-life-and-culture\">https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/17-4-the-assault-on-american-indian-life-and-culture<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/us-history\/pages\/1-introduction<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: History Colorado. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=U0UF71_-HZY&#038;feature=emb_logo\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=U0UF71_-HZY&#038;feature=emb_logo<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>The Price of Expansion. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: History. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=0tqOQ_MfP2s&#038;feature=emb_logo\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=0tqOQ_MfP2s&#038;feature=emb_logo<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: The Men Who Built America: Frontiersmen. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li> Indian battles in the Trans Mississippi West. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: US Army. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trans-Mississippi#\/media\/File:Western_Indian_Wars.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trans-Mississippi#\/media\/File:Western_Indian_Wars.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-5359-1\">Elliott West, <em>The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado<\/em> (Lawrence: Kansas University Press, 1998. <a href=\"#return-footnote-5359-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":10,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Sand Creek Massacre\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sand_Creek_massacre#Remembrance\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Geronimo\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geronimo\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Genocide of indigenous peoples\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples#:~:text=During%20the%20American%20Indian%20Wars,time%2C%20has%20been%20called%20genocide\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Megan Coplen for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen 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License\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"f851e9f5-d71c-45df-a5b6-ea2434d369a3,5fda8b83-bdba-4318-b52c-62bf4482712d","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-5359","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":46,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/5359","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":34,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/5359\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9277,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/5359\/revisions\/9277"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/46"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/5359\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=5359"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=5359"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=5359"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=5359"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}