{"id":6123,"date":"2022-04-05T03:26:55","date_gmt":"2022-04-05T03:26:55","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=6123"},"modified":"2022-09-01T21:01:50","modified_gmt":"2022-09-01T21:01:50","slug":"understanding-systemic-racism","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-ushistory2\/chapter\/understanding-systemic-racism\/","title":{"raw":"Understanding Systemic Racism","rendered":"Understanding Systemic Racism"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">Examine\u00a0how racist ideas are constructed and disseminated through society, resulting in systemic racism<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nBefore we begin, it is important to be aware that we will be exploring primary sources from the late 19th and early 20th centuries that include potentially upsetting portrayals of Black Americans. These sources may very well make you upset or angry, perhaps out of empathy with Black people of that time, or perhaps because the ideas that circulate in these sources may not seem all that far removed from what we see in the world today.\r\n<h2>Systemic Racism<\/h2>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Most historians today agree that racism is a multifaceted problem, both in the American past and in the American present. We are often conditioned to see individual actions or persons as \"racist\" or \"not racist,\" but we can learn a lot by seeing how racism works at a societal level instead. For this historical hack, we will look at how racism must be considered a <em>systemic<\/em> problem. When we talk about systemic racism, we are talking about how racist ideas and assumptions are knitted into the institutions that make a civilization function. Often, it is embedded in laws, unfair political representation, and in access to housing or health care. Racism can also manifest in customs, ideas, or educational practices that govern a society.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The idea of systemic racism is a fairly new one. The term was first used by Black Power activists Stokely Carmichael and Charles Hamilton in 1967. In their work, the two men observe:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<blockquote>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Racism is both overt and covert. It takes two, closely related forms: individual whites acting against individual blacks, and acts by the total white community against the black community. We call these individual racism and institutional racism. The first consists of overt acts by individuals, which cause death, injury or the violent destruction of property. This type can be recorded by television cameras; it can frequently be observed in the process of commission. The second type is less overt, far more subtle, less identifiable in terms of specific individuals committing the acts. But it is no less destructive of human life. The second type originates in the operation of established and respected forces in the society, and thus receives far less public condemnation than the first type[footnote]Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, \"Black Power,\" (New York, Vintage Books, 1967), 4.[\/footnote].\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/blockquote>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">In the 1960s when this was written, this meant that an overt and violent act, such as the 1963 bombing of a Black church in Alabama, receives condemnation. Yet, the historic malnutrition and high child mortality rates among Black children in Alabama did not receive similar attention and outrage, although these conditions also had racialized origins. Let us take a moment to further clarify what we mean by systemic racism.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nIn this video, CEO of the Portland Center for Equity and Inclusion,\u00a0Hanif Fazal, and CEO of North Star Forward Consulting,\u00a0Lillian M. Green, discuss what systemic racism is and what it looks like.\r\n\r\nIn the video, the experts differentiate between four types of racism:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>internalized racism:\u00a0<\/strong>a person's own thoughts, feelings, and actions as individuals about race<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>interpersonal racism:\u00a0<\/strong>racist actions, like harassment and discrimination, between people<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>institutional racism:\u00a0<\/strong>policies and practices that reinforce racism in the workplace<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>systemic racism:\u00a0<\/strong>the racism embedded in our institutions, policies, and practices.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThis video focuses on racism in a contemporary context, but it provides a useful way to understand different kinds of racism that exist in society. As you watch this, pay particularly close attention to the concept of \"systemic\" racism and how it operates differently from other forms of racism.\r\n\r\nYou can start the video at the 3:06 mark to focus on the description and examples of systemic racism.\r\n\r\n<iframe title=\"YouTube video player\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/DBxfnXql0oo?start=186\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><span data-mce-type=\"bookmark\" style=\"display: inline-block; width: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 0;\" class=\"mce_SELRES_start\">\ufeff<\/span><span data-mce-type=\"bookmark\" style=\"display: inline-block; width: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 0;\" class=\"mce_SELRES_start\">\ufeff<\/span><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/37ed4783-4552-4837-b879-6f29e7ab8dec\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Connecting the Past to the Present<\/h2>\r\nWe can better understand how racism works as a system (and not merely a bunch of discrete acts by bad people) by looking to the past for some insight and practical examples. Few examples are as poignant and longstanding as the system of Jim Crow racism that dominated the South from about 1890 until it was dismantled in the 1950s and 1960s.\r\n<h3>Jim Crow Laws<\/h3>\r\nMany of the elements that made up the Jim Crow system were put into place by Southern leaders during the last twenty years of the 19th century. These leaders constructed legal, social, and economic barriers to Black advancement and social equality. From this module, you may remember the\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>miscegenation laws<\/strong>, which made marriage or any sexual relationships between Whites and other races illegal. (In practice, this was rarely enforced when White men used their power and influence to have coercive or nonconsensual relations with Black women).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>de jure disenfranchisement<\/strong>, which worked around the 15th Amendment through the use of unequally-applied literacy tests, civics tests, and poll taxes.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>laws mandating separate accommodations for different races, such as waiting rooms, train compartments, toilets, and water fountains.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>You can peruse more examples at this <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ferris.edu\/HTMLS\/news\/jimcrow\/links\/misclink\/examples.htm\">online exhibition<\/a>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Justifications for Jim Crow<\/h3>\r\nPublic intellectual Lewis Waller lists a number of \u201cjustifications, rationalizations, and causes\u201d that may help explain how this system of racial inequality toward Black people in the Jim Crow South took root. These include:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Propaganda<\/strong>: the manipulation of news and media to frame events in a way favorable to White Southerners.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><strong>Sexuality<\/strong>: fear of miscegenation (or \"race-mixing\" as it was called then). Remember, a lot of the violence of the Jim Crow era is premised on a fear of Black male sexuality, and interpreting this fear as a threat to White women.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><strong>Scientific Racism<\/strong>: The misuse of scientific data or theories in an attempt to objectively prove differences in ability and potential between races.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><strong>Nostalgia<\/strong>: Remembering an earlier time fondly, particularly when a different racial dynamic was in play.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><strong>Economics<\/strong>: Seeing different races as competitors rather than partners, competing against one another to win scarce resources, such as good-paying jobs.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><strong>Stereotypes<\/strong>: Assigning moral, behavioral, or physical characteristics to an entire racial group. In the case of the South, this would \"create a culture of expectations around how Black Americans should act and how Whites should construct their own views.\"<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><strong>Feelings of Defeat and Victimhood among Southern Whites<\/strong>: \"perpetrators of violence often see themselves as victims, the subject of some kind of injustice, either in the past or ongoing.\"[footnote]Waller, Lewis. \"The Psychology of Racism in Jim Crow America.\" Then &amp; Now, YouTube video.\u00a0https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=VlPSaWfa3Js[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/b70baefe-0dc4-4619-abbd-ad53dd19df45\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nSimply, it isn\u2019t helpful to conclude that someone in the past \u201chated someone just because of the color of their skin.\u201d Such a conclusion may be partly true, but it does very little to understand how racially loaded ideas spread, propagate, or convince others. Be on the lookout for subtext, and clues in the text that suggest what the writer is saying below the surface. For example, few Southerners of the Jim Crow era would have been so bold as to write in a respectable publication, \u201cI don\u2019t like Black people because they might steal my job.\u201d Instead, language\u00a0criticizing Blacks as\u00a0\u201cuppity\u201d or \u201cworking above their station\u201d will surface\u2013 thus framing the problem as one of Black presumption and insolence.\r\n\r\nThere are always ideas, assumptions, and material conditions that inform and shape hatred, bigotry, or a sense of racial superiority. However, we can use our skills as thinkers and historians to understand how that process takes place. And in doing so, perhaps we can better understand how racially loaded ideas continue and propagate today.\r\n<h2>First Example: Natural Selection and the Race Problem<\/h2>\r\nRace as a system is more than just the sum of racist laws. It interacts with social expectations, economic opportunity, political power, and intellectual life. Let us take a look at how a document from 1905 purporting to be academic reflects and contributes to a system of racism.\u00a0The author is Benjamin Hays, a physician and public health official in North Carolina. This excerpt was originally printed in a Southern medical journal before it was published as a standalone piece.\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Primary Source: \"Natural Selection and the Race Problem\"<\/h3>\r\n<p align=\"center\"><em>This primary source comes from Dr. Benjamin Hays of Oxford, North Carolina. The article was originally published in the Charlotte Medical Journal in May 1905. Hays, a White man, writes about racial relations, writing early on in the paper that \"The object of this paper is to examine the conditions as they are; to account for them by natural causes; to inquire if those causes are still operative; and if possible to note whither they are tending.\" Read these passages from Hays as he attempts to explain the racial divisions of his time.\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<table style=\"border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%;\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 72.1679%;\"><strong>Hays Document<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 27.8321%;\"><strong>Explanation<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 72.1679%;\">\u201cAnd the black man\u2014what of him?As he was known to the ancient Egyptians, to the Greek and to the Roman, even so is he found in his African home to-day. At the dawn of history he was fully developed, and during the past three thousand years he has not made one step of progress. Independently, he has shown no power to advance. The superiority of the American negro to his African brother, who is a savage and a cannibal, is due to slavery, and could have been acquired in no other way. Men who ascribe debased characteristics of the negro to slavery show a short-sightedness that is pitiable. The present attainment of the American negro has been solely the result of his close personal contact with the white man.Nor should it be forgotten that most of the leaders of the negro race are men with Anglo-Saxon blood in their veins who partake more of their Caucasian than of their Ethiopian lineage. Some of these are splendid men, who are making heroic efforts to elevate the negro race. Others of mixed blood are vicious and turbulent. These are the men who create trouble.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 27.8321%;\">What is Hays' main argument here?\r\n\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"346293\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"346293\"]\r\n\r\nHere Hays argues that \"successful\" Black people have been successful due to either their close contact to White men or through some Anglo-Saxon lineage.[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThis document has barely begun and it's already upsetting, especially to contemporary readers. Yet, it may be surprising that this source isn't simply unbridled racial hatred; it is written attempting a cool, scholarly tone. Let's take a closer look at what Hays is trying to say.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/2431e876-51b4-48a7-8032-65d8f460ac3d\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Primary Source: \"Natural Selection and the Race Problem\"<\/h3>\r\nLet's read on. Read Hays' comments first in the left column, then check the explanation in the right column.\r\n<table style=\"border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%;\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 64.382%;\"><strong>Hays Document<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 35.618%;\"><strong>Explanation<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 64.382%;\">In this country, just so far as personal contact with the whites has been withdrawn, to that extent has the negro retrograded. It is a serious question if he has not relapsed more during the past forty years by losing the intimate association of the white man than he has gained by the $200,000,000 that have been spent for his education.\r\n\r\nThe negro has been domesticated, but the question is, will he ever become an integral part of Anglo-American civilization?<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 35.618%;\">What is Hays saying here?\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"710906\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"710906\"]This statement may not be immediately clear to the modern reader. Hays seems to be arguing that Black culture and morality have actually declined in the forty years since slavery ended, as the Black individual no longer has positive models for good behavior. Education is wasted, he believes, unless freedpersons emulate the habits of White Southerners.[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 64.382%;\">The black man has never been a competitor, but has always been subservient to the white race. And just so long as he remains subservient his position is secure, and just so soon as he becomes a competitor his fate is sealed.\r\n\r\nIt is not necessary that he should work for a white master, or remain a menial. In a country whose natural resources are undeveloped, as is the case with the South, a man may serve a municipality or a State. In North Carolina, for example, there is need of men to develop her farms and to work in her factories; there is need of day laborers, carpenters and masons, dress-makers and laundry women, and so long as the negro renders this service he is protected by the white man as a gardener protects his hot-house plants.\r\n\r\nBut even here the Struggle for Existence is felt, for wherever you find a white man whose work brings him into competition with a negro, there you find a man who cherishes a bitter hatred of the entire negro race; and were it not for the protecting arm of the non-competing white man these rivals of the negro would turn upon him in a single night. It is this class of men, who, when their passions are so aroused that they can be no longer restrained, compose lynching parties and create race riots.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 35.618%;\">What does Hays say about how Black and White people can work together?\r\n\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"535037\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"535037\"]Here, Hays argues that Black and White people living together can only work so long as they are not in competition for jobs.[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 64.382%;\">Only once in our history did the negro become the competitor of the white race as a whole, and that was when he aspired to political honors. The political position of the negro today is but a forecast of what his racial position will be when he undertakes to realize his dream of commercial, intellectual and social equality.\r\n\r\nThe recent agitation of the race problem, making all due allowance for the political capital created out of race prejudice, has in my judgment been due to this, that the negro has, in a degree, ceased to be the useful artisan of which the South stands solely in need, and has divided into two classes--those who aspire to social equality with the whites, and those who have retrograded, and because of crime and vagrancy, have become a menace to civilization.\u201d<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 35.618%;\">What does Hays mean when he says Black men aspired to political honors?\r\n\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"573581\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"573581\"]The early 20th-century reader would understand intuitively that Hays is referring to Reconstruction when speaking of Black men as having \"aspired to political honors.\" Like most White Southerners of the time, he interpreted Reconstruction as a bleak period of corruption and misrule, where opportunistic Northerners and unprepared Blacks dominated the South.[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\nLet\u2019s stop just for a moment to reflect here. There is a lot of material even in this short segment that strikes us as both factually mistaken and ethically problematic. To make sure Hays\u2019 arguments and assumptions are understood, let\u2019s try a few questions.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nWhen we consider this document, which of the four types of racism from the video is the best way to describe what is contained in this text? Is this interpersonal, institutional, systemic, or internalized? In 2-3 sentences, explain your reasoning.\r\n<p class=\"p1\">[practice-area rows=\"2\"][\/practice-area]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\">[reveal-answer q=\"346547\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"346547\"]This piece most closely resembles systemic racism. It isn't directed at one particular Black person, but is trying to create a unified theory about the capability of Black people in light of U.S. history. One way that this happens is by establishing a biological and historical rationale for keeping Black workers in menial jobs.[\/hidden-answer]<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nTo understand Hays, we need to ask: where do his ideas of race seem to come from? See if you can trace this out in 2-3 sentences. The answer to the previous multiple-guess question should give you a good starting point.\r\n\r\n[practice-area rows=\"2\"][\/practice-area]\r\n\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"210024\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"210024\"]Hays seems to be using the ideas of Social Darwinism to explain differences between the races, rendering racial inequality a matter of inherent biology, rather than a lack of resources, economic unfairness, or social conditioning. However, he does not see Black individuals as \u201ccompetitors\u201d in a struggle for existence, but as subservient helpers to a superior race. [\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nWaller\u2019s list of \u201cjustifications, rationalizations, and causes\u201d behind the various forms of Jim Crow racism\u00a0is useful here to understand how Hays perceives race. Since we have already uncovered the scientific racism, is there something else from his list that we can detect in Hays' work?\r\n\r\n[practice-area rows=\"2\"][\/practice-area]\r\n\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"968163\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"968163\"]Economic stress is alluded to in Hays\u2019 work. Soon after discussing Black people as subservient, Hays says: \u201cfor wherever you find a white man whose work brings him into competition with a negro, there you find a man who cherishes a bitter hatred of the entire negro race.\u201d When Black people take on work that is \u201cabove their station,\u201d they subvert, to Hays, their natural subservience, and become competitors of White men\u2013 a competition he does not believe they can win[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Activity #1<\/h3>\r\nUltimately, Hays' writing is not a mere stand-alone case of racist literature. Using what you know about the Jim Crow era South, can you hypothesize how this might contribute to a <em>system<\/em> of racism? What is it about this source that might lead it to contribute to a more racist <em>society<\/em>? If you aren't sure where to start, rewatch the video segment from above that defined systemic racism and apply what you've learned.\r\n\r\n[practice-area rows=\"4\"][\/practice-area]\r\n\r\nAs a follow-up to this question\u2013 your own views on race (hopefully not as misinformed as Hays\u2019!) are also culturally and intellectually conditioned. Why do you suppose you react the way you do to his writing? We have looked at the cultural influences on Hays\u2013 what are some of the cultural influences on you?\r\n\r\n[practice-area rows=\"4\"][\/practice-area]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<strong>institutional racism<\/strong>: policies and practices that reinforce racism in the workplace\r\n\r\n<strong>internalized racism<\/strong>: a person's own thoughts, feelings, and actions as individuals about race\r\n\r\n<strong>interpersonal racism<\/strong>: racist actions, like harassment and discrimination, between people\r\n\r\n<strong>systemic racism<\/strong>: the racism embedded in our institutions, policies, and practices\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">Examine\u00a0how racist ideas are constructed and disseminated through society, resulting in systemic racism<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>Before we begin, it is important to be aware that we will be exploring primary sources from the late 19th and early 20th centuries that include potentially upsetting portrayals of Black Americans. These sources may very well make you upset or angry, perhaps out of empathy with Black people of that time, or perhaps because the ideas that circulate in these sources may not seem all that far removed from what we see in the world today.<\/p>\n<h2>Systemic Racism<\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Most historians today agree that racism is a multifaceted problem, both in the American past and in the American present. We are often conditioned to see individual actions or persons as &#8220;racist&#8221; or &#8220;not racist,&#8221; but we can learn a lot by seeing how racism works at a societal level instead. For this historical hack, we will look at how racism must be considered a <em>systemic<\/em> problem. When we talk about systemic racism, we are talking about how racist ideas and assumptions are knitted into the institutions that make a civilization function. Often, it is embedded in laws, unfair political representation, and in access to housing or health care. Racism can also manifest in customs, ideas, or educational practices that govern a society.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The idea of systemic racism is a fairly new one. The term was first used by Black Power activists Stokely Carmichael and Charles Hamilton in 1967. In their work, the two men observe:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Racism is both overt and covert. It takes two, closely related forms: individual whites acting against individual blacks, and acts by the total white community against the black community. We call these individual racism and institutional racism. The first consists of overt acts by individuals, which cause death, injury or the violent destruction of property. This type can be recorded by television cameras; it can frequently be observed in the process of commission. The second type is less overt, far more subtle, less identifiable in terms of specific individuals committing the acts. But it is no less destructive of human life. The second type originates in the operation of established and respected forces in the society, and thus receives far less public condemnation than the first type<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, &quot;Black Power,&quot; (New York, Vintage Books, 1967), 4.\" id=\"return-footnote-6123-1\" href=\"#footnote-6123-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a>.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">In the 1960s when this was written, this meant that an overt and violent act, such as the 1963 bombing of a Black church in Alabama, receives condemnation. Yet, the historic malnutrition and high child mortality rates among Black children in Alabama did not receive similar attention and outrage, although these conditions also had racialized origins. Let us take a moment to further clarify what we mean by systemic racism.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>In this video, CEO of the Portland Center for Equity and Inclusion,\u00a0Hanif Fazal, and CEO of North Star Forward Consulting,\u00a0Lillian M. Green, discuss what systemic racism is and what it looks like.<\/p>\n<p>In the video, the experts differentiate between four types of racism:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>internalized racism:\u00a0<\/strong>a person&#8217;s own thoughts, feelings, and actions as individuals about race<\/li>\n<li><strong>interpersonal racism:\u00a0<\/strong>racist actions, like harassment and discrimination, between people<\/li>\n<li><strong>institutional racism:\u00a0<\/strong>policies and practices that reinforce racism in the workplace<\/li>\n<li><strong>systemic racism:\u00a0<\/strong>the racism embedded in our institutions, policies, and practices.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>This video focuses on racism in a contemporary context, but it provides a useful way to understand different kinds of racism that exist in society. As you watch this, pay particularly close attention to the concept of &#8220;systemic&#8221; racism and how it operates differently from other forms of racism.<\/p>\n<p>You can start the video at the 3:06 mark to focus on the description and examples of systemic racism.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" title=\"YouTube video player\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/DBxfnXql0oo?start=186\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><span data-mce-type=\"bookmark\" style=\"display: inline-block; width: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 0;\" class=\"mce_SELRES_start\">\ufeff<\/span><span data-mce-type=\"bookmark\" style=\"display: inline-block; width: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 0;\" class=\"mce_SELRES_start\">\ufeff<\/span><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_37ed4783-4552-4837-b879-6f29e7ab8dec\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/37ed4783-4552-4837-b879-6f29e7ab8dec?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_37ed4783-4552-4837-b879-6f29e7ab8dec\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Connecting the Past to the Present<\/h2>\n<p>We can better understand how racism works as a system (and not merely a bunch of discrete acts by bad people) by looking to the past for some insight and practical examples. Few examples are as poignant and longstanding as the system of Jim Crow racism that dominated the South from about 1890 until it was dismantled in the 1950s and 1960s.<\/p>\n<h3>Jim Crow Laws<\/h3>\n<p>Many of the elements that made up the Jim Crow system were put into place by Southern leaders during the last twenty years of the 19th century. These leaders constructed legal, social, and economic barriers to Black advancement and social equality. From this module, you may remember the<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>miscegenation laws<\/strong>, which made marriage or any sexual relationships between Whites and other races illegal. (In practice, this was rarely enforced when White men used their power and influence to have coercive or nonconsensual relations with Black women).<\/li>\n<li><strong>de jure disenfranchisement<\/strong>, which worked around the 15th Amendment through the use of unequally-applied literacy tests, civics tests, and poll taxes.<\/li>\n<li>laws mandating separate accommodations for different races, such as waiting rooms, train compartments, toilets, and water fountains.<\/li>\n<li>You can peruse more examples at this <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ferris.edu\/HTMLS\/news\/jimcrow\/links\/misclink\/examples.htm\">online exhibition<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Justifications for Jim Crow<\/h3>\n<p>Public intellectual Lewis Waller lists a number of \u201cjustifications, rationalizations, and causes\u201d that may help explain how this system of racial inequality toward Black people in the Jim Crow South took root. These include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Propaganda<\/strong>: the manipulation of news and media to frame events in a way favorable to White Southerners.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><strong>Sexuality<\/strong>: fear of miscegenation (or &#8220;race-mixing&#8221; as it was called then). Remember, a lot of the violence of the Jim Crow era is premised on a fear of Black male sexuality, and interpreting this fear as a threat to White women.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><strong>Scientific Racism<\/strong>: The misuse of scientific data or theories in an attempt to objectively prove differences in ability and potential between races.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><strong>Nostalgia<\/strong>: Remembering an earlier time fondly, particularly when a different racial dynamic was in play.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><strong>Economics<\/strong>: Seeing different races as competitors rather than partners, competing against one another to win scarce resources, such as good-paying jobs.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><strong>Stereotypes<\/strong>: Assigning moral, behavioral, or physical characteristics to an entire racial group. In the case of the South, this would &#8220;create a culture of expectations around how Black Americans should act and how Whites should construct their own views.&#8221;<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\"><strong>Feelings of Defeat and Victimhood among Southern Whites<\/strong>: &#8220;perpetrators of violence often see themselves as victims, the subject of some kind of injustice, either in the past or ongoing.&#8221;<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Waller, Lewis. &quot;The Psychology of Racism in Jim Crow America.&quot; Then &amp; Now, YouTube video.\u00a0https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=VlPSaWfa3Js\" id=\"return-footnote-6123-2\" href=\"#footnote-6123-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_b70baefe-0dc4-4619-abbd-ad53dd19df45\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/b70baefe-0dc4-4619-abbd-ad53dd19df45?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_b70baefe-0dc4-4619-abbd-ad53dd19df45\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Simply, it isn\u2019t helpful to conclude that someone in the past \u201chated someone just because of the color of their skin.\u201d Such a conclusion may be partly true, but it does very little to understand how racially loaded ideas spread, propagate, or convince others. Be on the lookout for subtext, and clues in the text that suggest what the writer is saying below the surface. For example, few Southerners of the Jim Crow era would have been so bold as to write in a respectable publication, \u201cI don\u2019t like Black people because they might steal my job.\u201d Instead, language\u00a0criticizing Blacks as\u00a0\u201cuppity\u201d or \u201cworking above their station\u201d will surface\u2013 thus framing the problem as one of Black presumption and insolence.<\/p>\n<p>There are always ideas, assumptions, and material conditions that inform and shape hatred, bigotry, or a sense of racial superiority. However, we can use our skills as thinkers and historians to understand how that process takes place. And in doing so, perhaps we can better understand how racially loaded ideas continue and propagate today.<\/p>\n<h2>First Example: Natural Selection and the Race Problem<\/h2>\n<p>Race as a system is more than just the sum of racist laws. It interacts with social expectations, economic opportunity, political power, and intellectual life. Let us take a look at how a document from 1905 purporting to be academic reflects and contributes to a system of racism.\u00a0The author is Benjamin Hays, a physician and public health official in North Carolina. This excerpt was originally printed in a Southern medical journal before it was published as a standalone piece.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Primary Source: &#8220;Natural Selection and the Race Problem&#8221;<\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><em>This primary source comes from Dr. Benjamin Hays of Oxford, North Carolina. The article was originally published in the Charlotte Medical Journal in May 1905. Hays, a White man, writes about racial relations, writing early on in the paper that &#8220;The object of this paper is to examine the conditions as they are; to account for them by natural causes; to inquire if those causes are still operative; and if possible to note whither they are tending.&#8221; Read these passages from Hays as he attempts to explain the racial divisions of his time.\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<table style=\"border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 72.1679%;\"><strong>Hays Document<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 27.8321%;\"><strong>Explanation<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 72.1679%;\">\u201cAnd the black man\u2014what of him?As he was known to the ancient Egyptians, to the Greek and to the Roman, even so is he found in his African home to-day. At the dawn of history he was fully developed, and during the past three thousand years he has not made one step of progress. Independently, he has shown no power to advance. The superiority of the American negro to his African brother, who is a savage and a cannibal, is due to slavery, and could have been acquired in no other way. Men who ascribe debased characteristics of the negro to slavery show a short-sightedness that is pitiable. The present attainment of the American negro has been solely the result of his close personal contact with the white man.Nor should it be forgotten that most of the leaders of the negro race are men with Anglo-Saxon blood in their veins who partake more of their Caucasian than of their Ethiopian lineage. Some of these are splendid men, who are making heroic efforts to elevate the negro race. Others of mixed blood are vicious and turbulent. These are the men who create trouble.<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 27.8321%;\">What is Hays&#8217; main argument here?<\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q346293\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q346293\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">\n<p>Here Hays argues that &#8220;successful&#8221; Black people have been successful due to either their close contact to White men or through some Anglo-Saxon lineage.<\/p><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p>This document has barely begun and it&#8217;s already upsetting, especially to contemporary readers. Yet, it may be surprising that this source isn&#8217;t simply unbridled racial hatred; it is written attempting a cool, scholarly tone. Let&#8217;s take a closer look at what Hays is trying to say.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_2431e876-51b4-48a7-8032-65d8f460ac3d\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/2431e876-51b4-48a7-8032-65d8f460ac3d?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_2431e876-51b4-48a7-8032-65d8f460ac3d\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Primary Source: &#8220;Natural Selection and the Race Problem&#8221;<\/h3>\n<p>Let&#8217;s read on. Read Hays&#8217; comments first in the left column, then check the explanation in the right column.<\/p>\n<table style=\"border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 64.382%;\"><strong>Hays Document<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 35.618%;\"><strong>Explanation<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 64.382%;\">In this country, just so far as personal contact with the whites has been withdrawn, to that extent has the negro retrograded. It is a serious question if he has not relapsed more during the past forty years by losing the intimate association of the white man than he has gained by the $200,000,000 that have been spent for his education.<\/p>\n<p>The negro has been domesticated, but the question is, will he ever become an integral part of Anglo-American civilization?<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 35.618%;\">What is Hays saying here?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q710906\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q710906\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">This statement may not be immediately clear to the modern reader. Hays seems to be arguing that Black culture and morality have actually declined in the forty years since slavery ended, as the Black individual no longer has positive models for good behavior. Education is wasted, he believes, unless freedpersons emulate the habits of White Southerners.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 64.382%;\">The black man has never been a competitor, but has always been subservient to the white race. And just so long as he remains subservient his position is secure, and just so soon as he becomes a competitor his fate is sealed.<\/p>\n<p>It is not necessary that he should work for a white master, or remain a menial. In a country whose natural resources are undeveloped, as is the case with the South, a man may serve a municipality or a State. In North Carolina, for example, there is need of men to develop her farms and to work in her factories; there is need of day laborers, carpenters and masons, dress-makers and laundry women, and so long as the negro renders this service he is protected by the white man as a gardener protects his hot-house plants.<\/p>\n<p>But even here the Struggle for Existence is felt, for wherever you find a white man whose work brings him into competition with a negro, there you find a man who cherishes a bitter hatred of the entire negro race; and were it not for the protecting arm of the non-competing white man these rivals of the negro would turn upon him in a single night. It is this class of men, who, when their passions are so aroused that they can be no longer restrained, compose lynching parties and create race riots.<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 35.618%;\">What does Hays say about how Black and White people can work together?<\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q535037\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q535037\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">Here, Hays argues that Black and White people living together can only work so long as they are not in competition for jobs.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 64.382%;\">Only once in our history did the negro become the competitor of the white race as a whole, and that was when he aspired to political honors. The political position of the negro today is but a forecast of what his racial position will be when he undertakes to realize his dream of commercial, intellectual and social equality.<\/p>\n<p>The recent agitation of the race problem, making all due allowance for the political capital created out of race prejudice, has in my judgment been due to this, that the negro has, in a degree, ceased to be the useful artisan of which the South stands solely in need, and has divided into two classes&#8211;those who aspire to social equality with the whites, and those who have retrograded, and because of crime and vagrancy, have become a menace to civilization.\u201d<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 35.618%;\">What does Hays mean when he says Black men aspired to political honors?<\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q573581\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q573581\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">The early 20th-century reader would understand intuitively that Hays is referring to Reconstruction when speaking of Black men as having &#8220;aspired to political honors.&#8221; Like most White Southerners of the time, he interpreted Reconstruction as a bleak period of corruption and misrule, where opportunistic Northerners and unprepared Blacks dominated the South.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p>Let\u2019s stop just for a moment to reflect here. There is a lot of material even in this short segment that strikes us as both factually mistaken and ethically problematic. To make sure Hays\u2019 arguments and assumptions are understood, let\u2019s try a few questions.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>When we consider this document, which of the four types of racism from the video is the best way to describe what is contained in this text? Is this interpersonal, institutional, systemic, or internalized? In 2-3 sentences, explain your reasoning.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><textarea aria-label=\"Your Answer\" rows=\"2\"><\/textarea><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\">\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q346547\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q346547\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">This piece most closely resembles systemic racism. It isn&#8217;t directed at one particular Black person, but is trying to create a unified theory about the capability of Black people in light of U.S. history. One way that this happens is by establishing a biological and historical rationale for keeping Black workers in menial jobs.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>To understand Hays, we need to ask: where do his ideas of race seem to come from? See if you can trace this out in 2-3 sentences. The answer to the previous multiple-guess question should give you a good starting point.<\/p>\n<p><textarea aria-label=\"Your Answer\" rows=\"2\"><\/textarea><\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q210024\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q210024\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">Hays seems to be using the ideas of Social Darwinism to explain differences between the races, rendering racial inequality a matter of inherent biology, rather than a lack of resources, economic unfairness, or social conditioning. However, he does not see Black individuals as \u201ccompetitors\u201d in a struggle for existence, but as subservient helpers to a superior race. <\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Waller\u2019s list of \u201cjustifications, rationalizations, and causes\u201d behind the various forms of Jim Crow racism\u00a0is useful here to understand how Hays perceives race. Since we have already uncovered the scientific racism, is there something else from his list that we can detect in Hays&#8217; work?<\/p>\n<p><textarea aria-label=\"Your Answer\" rows=\"2\"><\/textarea><\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q968163\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q968163\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">Economic stress is alluded to in Hays\u2019 work. Soon after discussing Black people as subservient, Hays says: \u201cfor wherever you find a white man whose work brings him into competition with a negro, there you find a man who cherishes a bitter hatred of the entire negro race.\u201d When Black people take on work that is \u201cabove their station,\u201d they subvert, to Hays, their natural subservience, and become competitors of White men\u2013 a competition he does not believe they can win<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Activity #1<\/h3>\n<p>Ultimately, Hays&#8217; writing is not a mere stand-alone case of racist literature. Using what you know about the Jim Crow era South, can you hypothesize how this might contribute to a <em>system<\/em> of racism? What is it about this source that might lead it to contribute to a more racist <em>society<\/em>? If you aren&#8217;t sure where to start, rewatch the video segment from above that defined systemic racism and apply what you&#8217;ve learned.<\/p>\n<p><textarea aria-label=\"Your Answer\" rows=\"4\"><\/textarea><\/p>\n<p>As a follow-up to this question\u2013 your own views on race (hopefully not as misinformed as Hays\u2019!) are also culturally and intellectually conditioned. Why do you suppose you react the way you do to his writing? We have looked at the cultural influences on Hays\u2013 what are some of the cultural influences on you?<\/p>\n<p><textarea aria-label=\"Your Answer\" rows=\"4\"><\/textarea><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<p><strong>institutional racism<\/strong>: policies and practices that reinforce racism in the workplace<\/p>\n<p><strong>internalized racism<\/strong>: a person&#8217;s own thoughts, feelings, and actions as individuals about race<\/p>\n<p><strong>interpersonal racism<\/strong>: racist actions, like harassment and discrimination, between people<\/p>\n<p><strong>systemic racism<\/strong>: the racism embedded in our institutions, policies, and practices<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-6123\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li><strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Mark Lempke for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Systemic Racism Explained. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"\"><\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li> Natural Selection and the Race Problem. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Benjamin K. Hays. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/docsouth.unc.edu\/nc\/hays\/hays.html\">https:\/\/docsouth.unc.edu\/nc\/hays\/hays.html<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Documenting the American South. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-6123-1\">Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, \"Black Power,\" (New York, Vintage Books, 1967), 4. <a href=\"#return-footnote-6123-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-6123-2\">Waller, Lewis. \"The Psychology of Racism in Jim Crow America.\" Then &amp; Now, YouTube video.\u00a0https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=VlPSaWfa3Js <a href=\"#return-footnote-6123-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":15,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"\",\"author\":\"Mark Lempke for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Systemic Racism Explained\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"ttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=DBxfnXql0oo\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\" Natural Selection and the Race Problem\",\"author\":\"Benjamin K. 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