{"id":660,"date":"2015-11-03T14:30:00","date_gmt":"2015-11-03T14:30:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/zelixcst110\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=660"},"modified":"2015-11-03T14:30:00","modified_gmt":"2015-11-03T14:30:00","slug":"listening-critically","status":"web-only","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/zelicst110\/chapter\/listening-critically\/","title":{"raw":"Listening Critically","rendered":"Listening Critically"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul><li>Define and explain critical listening and its importance in the public speaking context.<\/li>\n\t<li>Understand six distinct ways to improve your ability to critically listen to speeches.<\/li>\n\t<li>Evaluate what it means to be an ethical listener.<\/li>\n<\/ul><\/div>\nAs a student, you are exposed to many kinds of messages. You receive messages conveying academic information, institutional rules, instructions, and warnings; you also receive messages through political discourse, advertisements, gossip, jokes, song lyrics, text messages, invitations, web links, and all other manner of communication. You know it\u2019s not all the same, but it isn\u2019t always clear how to separate the truth from the messages that are misleading or even blatantly false. Nor is it always clear which messages are intended to help the listener and which ones are merely self-serving for the speaker. Part of being a good listener is to learn when to use caution in evaluating the messages we hear.\n\n<span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Critical listening<\/span><\/span> in this context means using careful, systematic thinking and reasoning to see whether a message makes sense in light of factual evidence. Critical listening can be learned with practice but is not necessarily easy to do. Some people never learn this skill; instead, they take every message at face value even when those messages are in conflict with their knowledge. Problems occur when messages are repeated to others who have not yet developed the skills to discern the difference between a valid message and a mistaken one. Critical listening can be particularly difficult when the message is complex. Unfortunately, some speakers may make their messages intentionally complex to avoid critical scrutiny. For example, a city treasurer giving a budget presentation might use very large words and technical jargon, which make it difficult for listeners to understand the proposed budget and ask probing questions.\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Six Ways to Improve Your Critical Listening<\/h2>\nCritical listening is first and foremost a skill that can be learned and improved. In this section, we are going to explore six different techniques you can use to become a more critical listener.\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s01_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Recognizing the Difference between Facts and Opinions<\/h2>\nSenator Daniel Patrick Moynihan is credited with saying, \u201cEveryone is entitled to their own opinions, but they are not entitled to their own facts.\u201d<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn04_011\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]Wikiquote. (n.d.). Daniel Patrick Moynihan. Retrieved from <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikiquote.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Patrick_Moynihan\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/en.wikiquote.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Patrick_Moynihan<\/a>[\/footnote]<\/span> Part of critical listening is learning to separate opinions from facts, and this works two ways: critical listeners are aware of whether a speaker is delivering a factual message or a message based on opinion, and they are also aware of the interplay between their own opinions and facts as they listen to messages.\n\nIn American politics, the issue of health care reform is heavily laden with both opinions and facts, and it is extremely difficult to sort some of them out. A clash of fact versus opinion happened on September 9, 2010, during President Obama\u2019s nationally televised speech to a joint session of Congress outlining his health care reform plan. In this speech, President Obama responded to several rumors about the plan, including the claim \u201cthat our reform effort will insure illegal immigrants. This, too, is false\u2014the reforms I\u2019m proposing would not apply to those who are here illegally.\u201d At this point, one congressman yelled out, \u201cYou lie!\u201d Clearly, this congressman did not have a very high opinion of either the health care reform plan or the president. However, when the nonpartisan watch group Factcheck.org examined the language of the proposed bill, they found that it had a section titled \u201cNo Federal Payment for Undocumented Aliens.\u201d<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn04_012\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]Factcheck.org, a Project of the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania. (2009, September 10). Obama\u2019s health care speech. Retrieved from <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/www.factcheck.org\/2009\/09\/obamas-health-care-speech\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.factcheck.org\/2009\/09\/obamas-health-care-speech<\/a>[\/footnote]<\/span>\n\nOften when people have a negative opinion about a topic, they are unwilling to accept facts. Instead, they question all aspects of the speech and have a negative predisposition toward both the speech and the speaker.\n\nThis is not to say that speakers should not express their opinions. Many of the greatest speeches in history include personal opinions. Consider, for example, Martin Luther King Jr.\u2019s famous \u201cI Have a Dream\u201d speech, in which he expressed his personal wish for the future of American society. Critical listeners may agree or disagree with a speaker\u2019s opinions, but the point is that they know when a message they are hearing is based on opinion and when it is factual.\n\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s01_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Uncovering Assumptions<\/h2>\nIf something is factual, supporting evidence exists. However, we still need to be careful about what evidence does and does not mean. <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Assumptions<\/span><\/span> are gaps in a logical sequence that listeners passively fill with their own ideas and opinions and may or may not be accurate. When listening to a public speech, you may find yourself being asked to assume something is a fact when in reality many people question that fact. For example, suppose you\u2019re listening to a speech on weight loss. The speaker talks about how people who are overweight are simply not motivated or lack the self-discipline to lose weight. The speaker has built the speech on the assumption that motivation and self-discipline are the only reasons why people can\u2019t lose weight. You may think to yourself, what about genetics? By listening critically, you will be more likely to notice unwarranted assumptions in a speech, which may prompt you to question the speaker if questions are taken or to do further research to examine the validity of the speaker\u2019s assumptions. If, however, you sit passively by and let the speaker\u2019s assumptions go unchallenged, you may find yourself persuaded by information that is not factual.\n\nWhen you listen critically to a speech, you might hear information that appears unsupported by evidence. You shouldn\u2019t accept that information unconditionally. You would accept it under the condition that the speaker offers credible evidence that directly supports it.\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s01_s02_t01\" class=\"im_table im_block\">\n\n<span class=\"im_title-prefix\">Table 1.<\/span> Facts vs. Assumptions\n<table cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"><thead><tr><th>Facts<\/th>\n<th>Assumptions<\/th>\n<\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Facts are verified by clear, unambiguous evidence.<\/td>\n<td>Assumptions are not supported by evidence.<\/td>\n<\/tr><tr><td>Most facts can be tested.<\/td>\n<td>Assumptions about the future cannot be tested in the present.<\/td>\n<\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s01_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Be Open to New Ideas<\/h2>\nSometimes people are so fully invested in their perceptions of the world that they are unable to listen receptively to messages that make sense and would be of great benefit to them. Human progress has been possible, sometimes against great odds, because of the mental curiosity and discernment of a few people. In the late 1700s when the technique of vaccination to prevent smallpox was introduced, it was opposed by both medical professionals and everyday citizens who staged public protests.<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn04_013\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]Edward Jenner Museum. (n.d.). Vaccination. Retrieved from <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/www.jennermuseum.com\/Jenner\/vaccination.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.jennermuseum.com\/Jenner\/vaccination.html<\/a>[\/footnote]<\/span> More than two centuries later, vaccinations against smallpox, diphtheria, polio, and other infectious diseases have saved countless lives, yet popular opposition continues.\n\nIn the world of public speaking, we must be open to new ideas. Let\u2019s face it, people have a tendency to filter out information they disagree with and to filter in information that supports what they already believe. Nicolaus Copernicus was a sixteenth-century astronomer who dared to publish a treatise explaining that the earth revolves around the sun, which was a violation of Catholic doctrine. Copernicus\u2019s astronomical findings were labeled heretical and his treatise banned because a group of people at the time were not open to new ideas. In May of 2010, almost five hundred years after his death, the Roman Catholic Church admitted its error and reburied his remains with the full rites of Catholic burial.<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn04_014\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]Owen, R. (2010, May 23). Catholic church reburies \u201cheretic\u201d Nicolaus Copernicus with honour. <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Times Online<\/em>. Retrieved from <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/www.timesonline.co.uk\/tol\/news\/world\/europe\/article7134341.ece\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.timesonline.co.uk\/tol\/news\/world\/europe\/article7134341.ece<\/a>[\/footnote]<\/span>\n\nWhile the Copernicus case is a fairly dramatic reversal, listeners should always be open to new ideas. We are not suggesting that you have to agree with every idea that you are faced with in life; rather, we are suggesting that you at least listen to the message and then evaluate the message.\n\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s01_s04\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Rely on Reason and Common Sense<\/h2>\nIf you are listening to a speech and your <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">common sense<\/span><\/span> tells you that the message is illogical, you very well might be right. You should be thinking about whether the speech seems credible and coherent. In this way, your use of common sense can act as a warning system for you.\n\nOne of our coauthors once heard a speech on the environmental hazards of fireworks. The speaker argued that fireworks (the public kind, not the personal kind people buy and set off in their backyards) were environmentally hazardous because of litter. Although there is certainly some paper that makes it to the ground before burning up, the amount of litter created by fireworks displays is relatively small compared to other sources of litter, including trash left behind by all the spectators watching fireworks at public parks and other venues. It just does not make sense to identify a few bits of charred paper as a major environmental hazard.\n\nIf the message is inconsistent with things you already know, if the argument is illogical, or if the language is exaggerated, you should investigate the issues before accepting or rejecting the message. Often, you will not be able to take this step during the presentation of the message; it may take longer to collect enough knowledge to make that decision for yourself.\n\nHowever, when you are the speaker, you should not substitute common sense for evidence. That\u2019s why during a speech it\u2019s necessary to cite the authority of scholars whose research is irrefutable, or at least highly credible. It is all too easy to make a mistake in reasoning, sometimes called fallacy, in stating your case. We will discuss these fallacies in more detail in Chapter 8 \"Supporting Ideas and Building Arguments\". One of the most common fallacies is <em class=\"im_emphasis\">post hoc, ergo propter hoc<\/em>, a \u201ccommon sense\u201d form of logic that translates roughly as \u201cafter the fact, therefore because of the fact.\u201d The argument says that if A happened first, followed by B, then A caused B. We know the outcome cannot occur earlier than the cause, but we also know that the two events might be related indirectly or that causality works in a different direction. For instance, imagine a speaker arguing that because the sun rises after a rooster\u2019s crow, the rooster caused the sun to rise. This argument is clearly illogical because roosters crow many times each day, and the sun\u2019s rising and setting do not change according to crowing or lack thereof. But the two events are related in a different way. Roosters tend to wake up and begin crowing at first light, about forty-five minutes before sunrise. Thus it is the impending sunrise that causes the predawn crowing.\n\nIn Chapter 2 \"Ethics Matters: Understanding the Ethics of Public Speaking,\" we pointed out that what is \u201ccommon sense\u201d for people of one generation or culture may be quite the opposite for people of a different generation or culture. Thus it is important not to assume that your audience shares the beliefs that are, for you, common sense. Likewise, if the message of your speech is complex or controversial, you should consider the needs of your audience and do your best to explain its complexities factually and logically, not intuitively.\n\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s01_s05\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Relate New Ideas to Old Ones<\/h2>\nAs both a speaker and a listener, one of the most important things you can do to understand a message is to relate new ideas to previously held ideas. Imagine you\u2019re giving a speech about biological systems and you need to use the term \u201chomeostasis,\u201d which refers to the ability of an organism to maintain stability by making constant adjustments. To help your audience understand homeostasis, you could show how homeostasis is similar to adjustments made by the thermostats that keep our homes at a more or less even temperature. If you set your thermostat for seventy degrees and it gets hotter, the central cooling will kick in and cool your house down. If your house gets below seventy degrees, your heater will kick in and heat your house up. Notice that in both cases your thermostat is making constant adjustments to stay at seventy degrees. Explaining that the body\u2019s homeostasis works in a similar way will make it more relevant to your listeners and will likely help them both understand and remember the idea because it links to something they have already experienced.\n\nIf you can make effective comparisons while you are listening, it can deepen your understanding of the message. If you can provide those comparisons for your listeners, you make it easier for them to give consideration to your ideas.\n\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s01_s06\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Take Notes<\/h2>\nNote-taking is a skill that improves with practice. You already know that it\u2019s nearly impossible to write down everything a speaker says. In fact, in your attempt to record everything, you might fall behind and wish you had divided your attention differently between writing and listening.\n\nCareful, selective note-taking is important because we want an accurate record that reflects the meanings of the message. However much you might concentrate on the notes, you could inadvertently leave out an important word, such as <em class=\"im_emphasis\">not<\/em>, and undermine the reliability of your otherwise carefully written notes. Instead, if you give the same care and attention to listening, you are less likely to make that kind of a mistake.\n\nIt\u2019s important to find a balance between listening well and taking good notes. Many people struggle with this balance for a long time. For example, if you try to write down only key phrases instead of full sentences, you might find that you can\u2019t remember how two ideas were related. In that case, too few notes were taken. At the opposite end, extensive note-taking can result in a loss of emphasis on the most important ideas.\n\nTo increase your critical listening skills, continue developing your ability to identify the central issues in messages so that you can take accurate notes that represent the meanings intended by the speaker.\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Listening Ethically<\/h2>\n<span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Ethical listening<\/span><\/span> rests heavily on honest intentions. We should extend to speakers the same respect we want to receive when it\u2019s our turn to speak. We should be facing the speaker with our eyes open. We should not be checking our cell phones. We should avoid any behavior that belittles the speaker or the message.\n\nScholars Stephanie Coopman and James Lull emphasize the creation of a climate of caring and mutual understanding, observing that \u201crespecting others\u2019 perspectives is one hallmark of the effective listener.\u201d<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn04_015\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]Coopman, S. J., &amp; Lull, J. (2008). <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Public speaking: The evolving art<\/em>. Cengage Learning, p. 60.[\/footnote]<\/span> Respect, or unconditional positive regard for others, means that you treat others with consideration and decency whether you agree with them or not. Professors Sprague, Stuart, and Bodary<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn04_016\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]Sprague, J., Stuart, D., &amp; Bodary, D. (2010). <em class=\"im_emphasis\">The speaker\u2019s handbook<\/em> (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage.[\/footnote]<\/span> also urge us to treat the speaker with respect even when we disagree, don\u2019t understand the message, or find the speech boring.\n\nDoug Lipman (1998),<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn04_017\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]Lippman, D. (1998). <em class=\"im_emphasis\">The storytelling coach: How to listen, praise, and bring out people\u2019s best<\/em>. Little Rock, AR: August House.[\/footnote]<\/span> a storytelling coach, wrote powerfully and sensitively about listening in his book:\n<blockquote><div>Like so many of us, I used to take listening for granted, glossing over this step as I rushed into the more active, visible ways of being helpful. Now, I am convinced that listening is the single most important element of any helping relationship.\n\nListening has great power. It draws thoughts and feelings out of people as nothing else can. When someone listens to you well, you become aware of feelings you may not have realized that you felt. You have ideas you may have never thought before. You become more eloquent, more insightful.\u2026\n\nAs a helpful listener, I do not interrupt you. I do not give advice. I do not do something else while listening to you. I do not convey distraction through nervous mannerisms. I do not finish your sentences for you. In spite of all my attempts to understand you, I do not assume I know what you mean.\n\nI do not convey disapproval, impatience, or condescension. If I am confused, I show a desire for clarification, not dislike for your obtuseness. I do not act vindicated when you misspeak or correct yourself.\n\nI do not sit impassively, withholding participation.\n\nInstead, I project affection, approval, interest, and enthusiasm. I am your partner in communication. I am eager for your imminent success, fascinated by your struggles, forgiving of your mistakes, always expecting the best. I am your delighted listener.<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn04_018\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]Lippman, D. (1998). <em class=\"im_emphasis\">The storytelling coach: How to listen, praise, and bring out people\u2019s best<\/em>. Little Rock, AR: August House, pp. 110\u2013111.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/div><\/blockquote>\nThis excerpt expresses the decency with which people should treat each other. It doesn\u2019t mean we must accept everything we hear, but ethically, we should refrain from trivializing each other\u2019s concerns. We have all had the painful experience of being ignored or misunderstood. This is how we know that one of the greatest gifts one human can give to another is listening.\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-success\">\n<h3>KEY TAKEAWAYS<\/h3>\n<ul><li>Critical listening is the process a listener goes through using careful, systematic thinking and reasoning to see whether a speaker\u2019s message makes sense in light of factual evidence. When listeners are not critical of the messages they are attending to, they are more likely to be persuaded by illogical arguments based on opinions and not facts.<\/li>\n\t<li>Critical listening can be improved by employing one or more strategies to help the listener analyze the message: recognize the difference between facts and opinions, uncover assumptions given by the speaker, be open to new ideas, use both reason and common sense when analyzing messages, relate new ideas to old ones, and take useful notes.<\/li>\n\t<li>Being an ethical listener means giving respectful attention to the ideas of a speaker, even though you may not agree with or accept those ideas.<\/li>\n<\/ul><\/div>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3>EXERCISES<\/h3>\n<ol><li>Think of a time when you were too tired or distracted to give your full attention to the ideas in a speech. What did you do? What should you have done?<\/li>\n\t<li>Give an example of a mistake in reasoning that involved the speaker mistaking an assumption for fact.<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Define and explain critical listening and its importance in the public speaking context.<\/li>\n<li>Understand six distinct ways to improve your ability to critically listen to speeches.<\/li>\n<li>Evaluate what it means to be an ethical listener.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>As a student, you are exposed to many kinds of messages. You receive messages conveying academic information, institutional rules, instructions, and warnings; you also receive messages through political discourse, advertisements, gossip, jokes, song lyrics, text messages, invitations, web links, and all other manner of communication. You know it\u2019s not all the same, but it isn\u2019t always clear how to separate the truth from the messages that are misleading or even blatantly false. Nor is it always clear which messages are intended to help the listener and which ones are merely self-serving for the speaker. Part of being a good listener is to learn when to use caution in evaluating the messages we hear.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Critical listening<\/span><\/span> in this context means using careful, systematic thinking and reasoning to see whether a message makes sense in light of factual evidence. Critical listening can be learned with practice but is not necessarily easy to do. Some people never learn this skill; instead, they take every message at face value even when those messages are in conflict with their knowledge. Problems occur when messages are repeated to others who have not yet developed the skills to discern the difference between a valid message and a mistaken one. Critical listening can be particularly difficult when the message is complex. Unfortunately, some speakers may make their messages intentionally complex to avoid critical scrutiny. For example, a city treasurer giving a budget presentation might use very large words and technical jargon, which make it difficult for listeners to understand the proposed budget and ask probing questions.<\/p>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Six Ways to Improve Your Critical Listening<\/h2>\n<p>Critical listening is first and foremost a skill that can be learned and improved. In this section, we are going to explore six different techniques you can use to become a more critical listener.<\/p>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s01_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Recognizing the Difference between Facts and Opinions<\/h2>\n<p>Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan is credited with saying, \u201cEveryone is entitled to their own opinions, but they are not entitled to their own facts.\u201d<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn04_011\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Wikiquote. (n.d.). Daniel Patrick Moynihan. Retrieved from http:\/\/en.wikiquote.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Patrick_Moynihan\" id=\"return-footnote-660-1\" href=\"#footnote-660-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Part of critical listening is learning to separate opinions from facts, and this works two ways: critical listeners are aware of whether a speaker is delivering a factual message or a message based on opinion, and they are also aware of the interplay between their own opinions and facts as they listen to messages.<\/p>\n<p>In American politics, the issue of health care reform is heavily laden with both opinions and facts, and it is extremely difficult to sort some of them out. A clash of fact versus opinion happened on September 9, 2010, during President Obama\u2019s nationally televised speech to a joint session of Congress outlining his health care reform plan. In this speech, President Obama responded to several rumors about the plan, including the claim \u201cthat our reform effort will insure illegal immigrants. This, too, is false\u2014the reforms I\u2019m proposing would not apply to those who are here illegally.\u201d At this point, one congressman yelled out, \u201cYou lie!\u201d Clearly, this congressman did not have a very high opinion of either the health care reform plan or the president. However, when the nonpartisan watch group Factcheck.org examined the language of the proposed bill, they found that it had a section titled \u201cNo Federal Payment for Undocumented Aliens.\u201d<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn04_012\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Factcheck.org, a Project of the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania. (2009, September 10). Obama\u2019s health care speech. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.factcheck.org\/2009\/09\/obamas-health-care-speech\" id=\"return-footnote-660-2\" href=\"#footnote-660-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Often when people have a negative opinion about a topic, they are unwilling to accept facts. Instead, they question all aspects of the speech and have a negative predisposition toward both the speech and the speaker.<\/p>\n<p>This is not to say that speakers should not express their opinions. Many of the greatest speeches in history include personal opinions. Consider, for example, Martin Luther King Jr.\u2019s famous \u201cI Have a Dream\u201d speech, in which he expressed his personal wish for the future of American society. Critical listeners may agree or disagree with a speaker\u2019s opinions, but the point is that they know when a message they are hearing is based on opinion and when it is factual.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s01_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Uncovering Assumptions<\/h2>\n<p>If something is factual, supporting evidence exists. However, we still need to be careful about what evidence does and does not mean. <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Assumptions<\/span><\/span> are gaps in a logical sequence that listeners passively fill with their own ideas and opinions and may or may not be accurate. When listening to a public speech, you may find yourself being asked to assume something is a fact when in reality many people question that fact. For example, suppose you\u2019re listening to a speech on weight loss. The speaker talks about how people who are overweight are simply not motivated or lack the self-discipline to lose weight. The speaker has built the speech on the assumption that motivation and self-discipline are the only reasons why people can\u2019t lose weight. You may think to yourself, what about genetics? By listening critically, you will be more likely to notice unwarranted assumptions in a speech, which may prompt you to question the speaker if questions are taken or to do further research to examine the validity of the speaker\u2019s assumptions. If, however, you sit passively by and let the speaker\u2019s assumptions go unchallenged, you may find yourself persuaded by information that is not factual.<\/p>\n<p>When you listen critically to a speech, you might hear information that appears unsupported by evidence. You shouldn\u2019t accept that information unconditionally. You would accept it under the condition that the speaker offers credible evidence that directly supports it.<\/p>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s01_s02_t01\" class=\"im_table im_block\">\n<p><span class=\"im_title-prefix\">Table 1.<\/span> Facts vs. Assumptions<\/p>\n<table cellpadding=\"0\" style=\"border-spacing: 0px;\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Facts<\/th>\n<th>Assumptions<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Facts are verified by clear, unambiguous evidence.<\/td>\n<td>Assumptions are not supported by evidence.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Most facts can be tested.<\/td>\n<td>Assumptions about the future cannot be tested in the present.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s01_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Be Open to New Ideas<\/h2>\n<p>Sometimes people are so fully invested in their perceptions of the world that they are unable to listen receptively to messages that make sense and would be of great benefit to them. Human progress has been possible, sometimes against great odds, because of the mental curiosity and discernment of a few people. In the late 1700s when the technique of vaccination to prevent smallpox was introduced, it was opposed by both medical professionals and everyday citizens who staged public protests.<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn04_013\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Edward Jenner Museum. (n.d.). Vaccination. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.jennermuseum.com\/Jenner\/vaccination.html\" id=\"return-footnote-660-3\" href=\"#footnote-660-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> More than two centuries later, vaccinations against smallpox, diphtheria, polio, and other infectious diseases have saved countless lives, yet popular opposition continues.<\/p>\n<p>In the world of public speaking, we must be open to new ideas. Let\u2019s face it, people have a tendency to filter out information they disagree with and to filter in information that supports what they already believe. Nicolaus Copernicus was a sixteenth-century astronomer who dared to publish a treatise explaining that the earth revolves around the sun, which was a violation of Catholic doctrine. Copernicus\u2019s astronomical findings were labeled heretical and his treatise banned because a group of people at the time were not open to new ideas. In May of 2010, almost five hundred years after his death, the Roman Catholic Church admitted its error and reburied his remains with the full rites of Catholic burial.<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn04_014\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Owen, R. (2010, May 23). Catholic church reburies \u201cheretic\u201d Nicolaus Copernicus with honour. Times Online. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.timesonline.co.uk\/tol\/news\/world\/europe\/article7134341.ece\" id=\"return-footnote-660-4\" href=\"#footnote-660-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p>While the Copernicus case is a fairly dramatic reversal, listeners should always be open to new ideas. We are not suggesting that you have to agree with every idea that you are faced with in life; rather, we are suggesting that you at least listen to the message and then evaluate the message.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s01_s04\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Rely on Reason and Common Sense<\/h2>\n<p>If you are listening to a speech and your <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">common sense<\/span><\/span> tells you that the message is illogical, you very well might be right. You should be thinking about whether the speech seems credible and coherent. In this way, your use of common sense can act as a warning system for you.<\/p>\n<p>One of our coauthors once heard a speech on the environmental hazards of fireworks. The speaker argued that fireworks (the public kind, not the personal kind people buy and set off in their backyards) were environmentally hazardous because of litter. Although there is certainly some paper that makes it to the ground before burning up, the amount of litter created by fireworks displays is relatively small compared to other sources of litter, including trash left behind by all the spectators watching fireworks at public parks and other venues. It just does not make sense to identify a few bits of charred paper as a major environmental hazard.<\/p>\n<p>If the message is inconsistent with things you already know, if the argument is illogical, or if the language is exaggerated, you should investigate the issues before accepting or rejecting the message. Often, you will not be able to take this step during the presentation of the message; it may take longer to collect enough knowledge to make that decision for yourself.<\/p>\n<p>However, when you are the speaker, you should not substitute common sense for evidence. That\u2019s why during a speech it\u2019s necessary to cite the authority of scholars whose research is irrefutable, or at least highly credible. It is all too easy to make a mistake in reasoning, sometimes called fallacy, in stating your case. We will discuss these fallacies in more detail in Chapter 8 &#8220;Supporting Ideas and Building Arguments&#8221;. One of the most common fallacies is <em class=\"im_emphasis\">post hoc, ergo propter hoc<\/em>, a \u201ccommon sense\u201d form of logic that translates roughly as \u201cafter the fact, therefore because of the fact.\u201d The argument says that if A happened first, followed by B, then A caused B. We know the outcome cannot occur earlier than the cause, but we also know that the two events might be related indirectly or that causality works in a different direction. For instance, imagine a speaker arguing that because the sun rises after a rooster\u2019s crow, the rooster caused the sun to rise. This argument is clearly illogical because roosters crow many times each day, and the sun\u2019s rising and setting do not change according to crowing or lack thereof. But the two events are related in a different way. Roosters tend to wake up and begin crowing at first light, about forty-five minutes before sunrise. Thus it is the impending sunrise that causes the predawn crowing.<\/p>\n<p>In Chapter 2 &#8220;Ethics Matters: Understanding the Ethics of Public Speaking,&#8221; we pointed out that what is \u201ccommon sense\u201d for people of one generation or culture may be quite the opposite for people of a different generation or culture. Thus it is important not to assume that your audience shares the beliefs that are, for you, common sense. Likewise, if the message of your speech is complex or controversial, you should consider the needs of your audience and do your best to explain its complexities factually and logically, not intuitively.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s01_s05\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Relate New Ideas to Old Ones<\/h2>\n<p>As both a speaker and a listener, one of the most important things you can do to understand a message is to relate new ideas to previously held ideas. Imagine you\u2019re giving a speech about biological systems and you need to use the term \u201chomeostasis,\u201d which refers to the ability of an organism to maintain stability by making constant adjustments. To help your audience understand homeostasis, you could show how homeostasis is similar to adjustments made by the thermostats that keep our homes at a more or less even temperature. If you set your thermostat for seventy degrees and it gets hotter, the central cooling will kick in and cool your house down. If your house gets below seventy degrees, your heater will kick in and heat your house up. Notice that in both cases your thermostat is making constant adjustments to stay at seventy degrees. Explaining that the body\u2019s homeostasis works in a similar way will make it more relevant to your listeners and will likely help them both understand and remember the idea because it links to something they have already experienced.<\/p>\n<p>If you can make effective comparisons while you are listening, it can deepen your understanding of the message. If you can provide those comparisons for your listeners, you make it easier for them to give consideration to your ideas.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s01_s06\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Take Notes<\/h2>\n<p>Note-taking is a skill that improves with practice. You already know that it\u2019s nearly impossible to write down everything a speaker says. In fact, in your attempt to record everything, you might fall behind and wish you had divided your attention differently between writing and listening.<\/p>\n<p>Careful, selective note-taking is important because we want an accurate record that reflects the meanings of the message. However much you might concentrate on the notes, you could inadvertently leave out an important word, such as <em class=\"im_emphasis\">not<\/em>, and undermine the reliability of your otherwise carefully written notes. Instead, if you give the same care and attention to listening, you are less likely to make that kind of a mistake.<\/p>\n<p>It\u2019s important to find a balance between listening well and taking good notes. Many people struggle with this balance for a long time. For example, if you try to write down only key phrases instead of full sentences, you might find that you can\u2019t remember how two ideas were related. In that case, too few notes were taken. At the opposite end, extensive note-taking can result in a loss of emphasis on the most important ideas.<\/p>\n<p>To increase your critical listening skills, continue developing your ability to identify the central issues in messages so that you can take accurate notes that represent the meanings intended by the speaker.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch04_s05_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Listening Ethically<\/h2>\n<p><span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Ethical listening<\/span><\/span> rests heavily on honest intentions. We should extend to speakers the same respect we want to receive when it\u2019s our turn to speak. We should be facing the speaker with our eyes open. We should not be checking our cell phones. We should avoid any behavior that belittles the speaker or the message.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars Stephanie Coopman and James Lull emphasize the creation of a climate of caring and mutual understanding, observing that \u201crespecting others\u2019 perspectives is one hallmark of the effective listener.\u201d<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn04_015\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Coopman, S. J., &amp; Lull, J. (2008). Public speaking: The evolving art. Cengage Learning, p. 60.\" id=\"return-footnote-660-5\" href=\"#footnote-660-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Respect, or unconditional positive regard for others, means that you treat others with consideration and decency whether you agree with them or not. Professors Sprague, Stuart, and Bodary<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn04_016\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Sprague, J., Stuart, D., &amp; Bodary, D. (2010). The speaker\u2019s handbook (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage.\" id=\"return-footnote-660-6\" href=\"#footnote-660-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> also urge us to treat the speaker with respect even when we disagree, don\u2019t understand the message, or find the speech boring.<\/p>\n<p>Doug Lipman (1998),<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn04_017\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Lippman, D. (1998). The storytelling coach: How to listen, praise, and bring out people\u2019s best. Little Rock, AR: August House.\" id=\"return-footnote-660-7\" href=\"#footnote-660-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> a storytelling coach, wrote powerfully and sensitively about listening in his book:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<div>Like so many of us, I used to take listening for granted, glossing over this step as I rushed into the more active, visible ways of being helpful. Now, I am convinced that listening is the single most important element of any helping relationship.<\/p>\n<p>Listening has great power. It draws thoughts and feelings out of people as nothing else can. When someone listens to you well, you become aware of feelings you may not have realized that you felt. You have ideas you may have never thought before. You become more eloquent, more insightful.\u2026<\/p>\n<p>As a helpful listener, I do not interrupt you. I do not give advice. I do not do something else while listening to you. I do not convey distraction through nervous mannerisms. I do not finish your sentences for you. In spite of all my attempts to understand you, I do not assume I know what you mean.<\/p>\n<p>I do not convey disapproval, impatience, or condescension. If I am confused, I show a desire for clarification, not dislike for your obtuseness. I do not act vindicated when you misspeak or correct yourself.<\/p>\n<p>I do not sit impassively, withholding participation.<\/p>\n<p>Instead, I project affection, approval, interest, and enthusiasm. I am your partner in communication. I am eager for your imminent success, fascinated by your struggles, forgiving of your mistakes, always expecting the best. I am your delighted listener.<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn04_018\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Lippman, D. (1998). The storytelling coach: How to listen, praise, and bring out people\u2019s best. Little Rock, AR: August House, pp. 110\u2013111.\" id=\"return-footnote-660-8\" href=\"#footnote-660-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>This excerpt expresses the decency with which people should treat each other. It doesn\u2019t mean we must accept everything we hear, but ethically, we should refrain from trivializing each other\u2019s concerns. We have all had the painful experience of being ignored or misunderstood. This is how we know that one of the greatest gifts one human can give to another is listening.<\/p>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-success\">\n<h3>KEY TAKEAWAYS<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Critical listening is the process a listener goes through using careful, systematic thinking and reasoning to see whether a speaker\u2019s message makes sense in light of factual evidence. When listeners are not critical of the messages they are attending to, they are more likely to be persuaded by illogical arguments based on opinions and not facts.<\/li>\n<li>Critical listening can be improved by employing one or more strategies to help the listener analyze the message: recognize the difference between facts and opinions, uncover assumptions given by the speaker, be open to new ideas, use both reason and common sense when analyzing messages, relate new ideas to old ones, and take useful notes.<\/li>\n<li>Being an ethical listener means giving respectful attention to the ideas of a speaker, even though you may not agree with or accept those ideas.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3>EXERCISES<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>Think of a time when you were too tired or distracted to give your full attention to the ideas in a speech. What did you do? What should you have done?<\/li>\n<li>Give an example of a mistake in reasoning that involved the speaker mistaking an assumption for fact.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-660\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Public Speaking: Practice and Ethics. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Anonymous. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Anonymous. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/2012books.lardbucket.org\/books\/public-speaking-practice-and-ethics\/\">http:\/\/2012books.lardbucket.org\/books\/public-speaking-practice-and-ethics\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-660-1\">Wikiquote. (n.d.). Daniel Patrick Moynihan. Retrieved from <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikiquote.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Patrick_Moynihan\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/en.wikiquote.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Patrick_Moynihan<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-660-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-660-2\">Factcheck.org, a Project of the Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania. (2009, September 10). Obama\u2019s health care speech. Retrieved from <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/www.factcheck.org\/2009\/09\/obamas-health-care-speech\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.factcheck.org\/2009\/09\/obamas-health-care-speech<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-660-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-660-3\">Edward Jenner Museum. (n.d.). Vaccination. Retrieved from <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/www.jennermuseum.com\/Jenner\/vaccination.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.jennermuseum.com\/Jenner\/vaccination.html<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-660-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-660-4\">Owen, R. (2010, May 23). Catholic church reburies \u201cheretic\u201d Nicolaus Copernicus with honour. <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Times Online<\/em>. Retrieved from <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/www.timesonline.co.uk\/tol\/news\/world\/europe\/article7134341.ece\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.timesonline.co.uk\/tol\/news\/world\/europe\/article7134341.ece<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-660-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-660-5\">Coopman, S. J., &amp; Lull, J. (2008). <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Public speaking: The evolving art<\/em>. Cengage Learning, p. 60. <a href=\"#return-footnote-660-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-660-6\">Sprague, J., Stuart, D., &amp; Bodary, D. (2010). <em class=\"im_emphasis\">The speaker\u2019s handbook<\/em> (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage. <a href=\"#return-footnote-660-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-660-7\">Lippman, D. (1998). <em class=\"im_emphasis\">The storytelling coach: How to listen, praise, and bring out people\u2019s best<\/em>. Little Rock, AR: August House. <a href=\"#return-footnote-660-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-660-8\">Lippman, D. (1998). <em class=\"im_emphasis\">The storytelling coach: How to listen, praise, and bring out people\u2019s best<\/em>. Little Rock, AR: August House, pp. 110\u2013111. <a href=\"#return-footnote-660-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":277,"menu_order":7,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Public Speaking: Practice and Ethics\",\"author\":\"Anonymous\",\"organization\":\"Anonymous\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/2012books.lardbucket.org\/books\/public-speaking-practice-and-ethics\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-660","chapter","type-chapter","status-web-only","hentry"],"part":651,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/zelicst110\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/660","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/zelicst110\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/zelicst110\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/zelicst110\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/277"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/zelicst110\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/660\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":706,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/zelicst110\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/660\/revisions\/706"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/zelicst110\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/651"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/zelicst110\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/660\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/zelicst110\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=660"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/zelicst110\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=660"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/zelicst110\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=660"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/zelicst110\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=660"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}