The major religions of the world (Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Confucianism, Christianity, Taoism, and Judaism) differ in many respects, including how each religion is organized and the belief system, or common tenets, each upholds. Differences include the nature of belief in a higher power, the history of how the world and the religion began, and the use of sacred texts and objects.

Types of Religious Organizations

Religions organize themselves—their institutions, practitioners, and structures—in a various ways. For instance, when the Roman Catholic Church emerged, it borrowed many of its organizational principles from the ancient Roman military and turned senators into cardinals, for example. Ecclesia, denomination, and sect are terms used to describe these classifications. Scholars are also aware that these definitions are not static. Most religions transition through different organizational phases. For example, Christianity began as a cult, transformed into a sect, and today exists as an ecclesia.

Cults, like sects, are new religious groups. In the United States today this term often carries pejorative connotations. However, almost all religions began as cults and gradually progressed to levels of greater size, stability, and organization. The term cult is sometimes used interchangeably with the term “new religious movement” (NRM). In its pejorative use, these groups are often disparaged as being secretive, highly controlling of members’ lives, and dominated by a single, charismatic leader.

Controversy exists over whether some religious groups are in fact cults, perhaps due in part to media sensationalism over groups like the polygamous Mormon FLDS or the Peoples Temple followers who died in a mass suicide at Jonestown, Guyana, in 1978. Some groups that are controversially labeled as cults today include the Church of Scientology and the Hare Krishna movement.

A sect is a small and relatively new group. Most of the well-known Christian denominations in the United States today began as sects. For example, the Methodists and Baptists protested against their parent Anglican Church in England, just as Henry VIII protested against the Catholic Church by forming the Anglican Church. From “protest” comes the term Protestant.

Occasionally, a sect is a breakaway group that may be in tension with the larger society. They sometimes claim to be returning to “the fundamentals” or to be contesting the truth of a particular doctrine. When membership in a sect increases over time, it may grow into a denomination. Often a sect begins as an offshoot of a denomination, when a group of members believes they should separate from the larger group.

Figure 3. How might you classify the Mennonites? As a cult, a sect, or a denomination? (Photo courtesy of Frenkieb/flickr).

Some sects dissolve without growing into denominations. Sociologists call these established sects. Established sects, such as the Amish or Jehovah’s Witnesses fall halfway between sect and denomination on the ecclesia–cult continuum because they have a mixture of sect-like and denomination-like characteristics.

A denomination is a large, mainstream religious organization, but it does not claim to be official or state sponsored. It is one religion among many. For example, Baptist, African Methodist Episcopal, Catholic, and Seventh-day Adventist are all Christian denominations.

The term ecclesia, originally referring to a political assembly of citizens in ancient Athens, Greece, now refers to a congregation. In sociology, the term is used to refer to a religious group that most all members of a society belong to. It is considered a nationally recognized, or official, religion that holds a religious monopoly and is closely allied with state and secular powers. The United States does not have an ecclesia by this standard; in fact, this is the type of religious organization that many of the first colonists came to America to escape.

One way to remember these religious organizational terms is to think of cults, sects, denominations, and ecclesia representing a continuum, with increasing influence on society, where cults are least influential and ecclesia are most influential.

Types of Religions

Scholars from a variety of disciplines strove to classify religions. One widely accepted categorization that helps people understand different belief systems considers what or who people worship (if anything). Using this method of classification, religions might fall into one of these basic categories, as shown in the table below.

One way scholars have categorized religions is by classifying what or who they hold to be divine.

Religious Classification	What/Who Is Divine	Example
Polytheism	Multiple gods	Belief systems of the ancient Greeks and Romans
Monotheism	Single god	Judaism, Islam
Atheism	No deities	Atheism
Animism	Nonhuman beings (animals, plants, natural world)	Indigenous nature worship (Shinto)
Totemism	Human-natural being connection	Ojibwa (Native American) beliefs

Note that some religions may be practiced—or understood—in various categories. For instance, the Christian notion of the Holy Trinity (God, Jesus, Holy Spirit) defies the definition of monotheism, which is a religion based on belief in a single deity, to some scholars. Similarly, many Westerners view the multiple manifestations of Hinduism’s godhead as polytheistic, which is a religion based on belief in multiple deities, while Hindus might describe those manifestations are a monotheistic parallel to the Christian Trinity. Some Japanese practice Shinto, which follows animism, which is a religion that believes in the divinity of nonhuman beings, like animals, plants, and objects of the natural world, while people who practice totemism believe in a divine connection between humans and other natural beings.

It is also important to note that every society also has nonbelievers, such as atheists, who do not believe in a divine being or entity, and agnostics, who hold that ultimate reality (such as God) is unknowable. While typically not an organized group, atheists and agnostics represent a significant portion of the population. It is important to recognize that being a nonbeliever in a divine entity does not mean the individual subscribes to no morality. Indeed, many Nobel Peace Prize winners and other great humanitarians over the centuries would have classified themselves as atheists or agnostics.

Think It Over

• Consider the different types of religious organizations in the United States. What role did ecclesia play in the history of the United States? How have sects tended to change over time? What role do cults have today?
• What is your understanding of monotheism versus polytheism? How might your ideology be an obstacle to understanding the theism of another religion you’re unfamiliar with?
• In U.S. society, do you believe there is social stratification that correlates with religious beliefs? What about within the practitioners of a given religion? Provide examples to illustrate your point.

Hinduism

Figure 4. Hindu women sometimes apply decorations of henna dye to their hands for special occasions such as weddings and religious festivals. (Photo courtesy of Akash Mazumdar)

The oldest religion in the world, Hinduism originated in the Indus River Valley about 4,500 years ago in what is now modern-day northwest India and Pakistan. It arose contemporaneously with ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian cultures. With roughly one billion followers, Hinduism is the third-largest of the world’s religions; its followers, known as Hindus, constitute about 1.15 billion, or 15–16% of the global population. Hinduism is the most widely professed faith in India, Nepal and Mauritius. It is also the predominant religion in Bali, Indonesia. Significant numbers of Hindu communities are also found in the Caribbean, Southeast Asia, North America, Europe, Africa, and other countries.

Most forms of Hinduism are henotheistic, meaning they worship a main single deity, known as Brahman, but still recognize other gods and goddesses such Vishnu, Shiva, and Krishna, among others. Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book (although there are sacred texts). Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, panentheistic, pandeistic, henotheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist. Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and “a way of life.” From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism, like other faiths, is appropriately referred to as a religion but in India, the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the Western term religion.

One of the key thoughts of Hinduism is the belief in the soul, or atman. This philosophy holds that all living creatures have a soul, and all will be reincarnated, which is one reason why many Hindus are vegetarians. The ultimate goal of Hinduism is to achieve moksha, or salvation, which ends the cycle of sorrow, suffering and rebirths (saṃsāra) to become part of the absolute soul, or in complete oneness with God and existence. Hindus also generally believe in a set of principles called dharma, which refers to one’s duty in the world that corresponds with righteous choices and ethical actions. Hindus also believe in karma, or the notion that spiritual ramifications of one’s actions are balanced cyclically in this life or a future life.

The caste system, described in the module on social stratification, is based on the Hindu principles of karma and dharma. This ancient system, estimated by some scholars to be 3,000 years old, divides society into the following four castes: 1) brahmin (the intellectual and spiritual leaders), 2) kshatriyas (the protectors and public servants of society), 3) vaisyas (the skillful producers), and 4) shudras (the unskilled laborers) ^[1] Although discrimination based on caste was banned with India’s independence from Great Britain in 1947, some traditions such as marrying within one’s caste are still embraced.

Multiple sacred texts, collectively called the Vedas, were composed around 1500 B.C. and contain hymns and rituals from ancient India. They are mostly written in Sanskrit. Like many other religions, Hinduism was suppressed at various points in India’s history—by Muslim Arabs from 1200 to 1757 and between 1757 and 1848 when the British controlled India ^[2].

There are several Hindu festivals that are observed, but Diwali, or the festival of lights, is probably the most well known. The five days of Diwali include different rituals such as spring cleaning, shopping, decorating, praying, fasting, gift-giving, and eating, but the focal point of the celebration includes lighting lamps to represent a victory of good over evil and the light that comes from within. Another popular festival is the celebration of the arrival of spring, known as Holi, or the festival of colors, named for the bright colors of powders and water that many throw at others during the celebration.

The most famous Hindu, Mohandas ‘Mahatma’ Gandhi, helped India to gain independence from the British in 1947 before he was assassinated by an extremist Indian nationalist in 1948. After the dissolution of the British Raj in 1947, two new sovereign nations were formed—the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The subsequent partition of the former British India displaced up to 12.5 million people and resulted in conflict and war between the main religions groups, Muslims and Hindus, with estimates of loss of life varying from several hundred thousand to 1 million. India emerged as a secular nation with a Hindu majority population and a large Muslim minority, while Pakistan emerged also as a secular nation with a Muslim majority population and a large Hindu minority.

Learn about the basic beliefs and practices of Hinduism in this short video.

Jainism

Jainism is another predominantly Indian religion that shares some commonalities with Hinduism, although there are still major distinctions. Followers of Jainism are called “Jains,” a word derived from the Sanskrit word jina (victor) and connoting the path of victory in crossing over life’s stream of rebirths through an ethical and spiritual life. Jains consider their religion to be eternal (sanatan), and trace their history through a succession of 24 victorious saviors and teachers known as tirthankaras. Jains believe that Jainism is an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every cycle of the Jain cosmology.

The main religious premises of Jainism are ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (many-sidedness), aparigraha (non-attachment) and asceticism. Devout Jains take five main vows: ahiṃsā (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (celibacy or chastity), and aparigraha (non-attachment). These principles have impacted Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle that avoids harm to animals and their life cycles. “Parasparopagraho Jīvānām” (the function of souls is to help one another) is the motto of Jainism.

Watch this video to learn about Jainism:

 Buddhism

Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama around 500 B.C.E. Siddhartha was born as a prince in present-day Nepal and was so moved by the suffering in the world, he is said to have given up a comfortable, upper-class life to follow one of poverty and spiritual devotion. At the age of thirty-five, he famously meditated under a sacred fig tree and vowed not to rise before he achieved enlightenment (bodhi). After this experience, he became known as Buddha, or “enlightened one.” Followers were drawn to Buddha’s teachings, known as “dharma,” and the practice of meditation, and he later established a monastic order.

Buddha’s teachings encourage Buddhists to lead a moral life by accepting the four Noble Truths: 1) life is suffering, 2) suffering arises from attachment to desires, 3) suffering ceases when attachment to desires ceases, and 4) freedom from suffering is possible by following the “middle way.” The concept of the “middle way” is central to Buddhist thinking, which encourages people to live in the present and to practice acceptance of others (Smith 1991). Buddha taught that wisdom, kindness, patience, generosity and compassion were important virtues. Buddhism also tends to de-emphasize the role of a godhead, instead stressing the importance of personal responsibility (Craig, 2002). This is illustrated by five moral principles, which prohibit:

• Killing living things
• Taking what is not given
• Sexual misconduct
• Lying
• Using drugs or alcohol

The Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism: people crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, “incapable of satisfying” and painful. This keeps people caught in saṃsāra, the endless cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha, and dying again. According to Buddhism, there is a way to liberation from this endless cycle to the state of nirvana, namely following the Noble Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path consists of eight practices: right view, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right samadhi (“meditative absorption or union”).

Buddhism is the world’s fourth-largest religion, with over 520 million followers, or over 7 percent of the global population. While some of the main tenets were explained above, Buddhism encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs, and spiritual practices, and can be further divided into other traditions, which have some variations in their beliefs. The two major extant branches of Buddhism are Theravada (Pali: “The School of the Elders”) and Mahayana (Sanskrit: “The Great Vehicle”). Theravada Buddhism has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia such as Myanmar and Thailand. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon and Tiantai (Tendai), is found throughout East Asia.

Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian adepts, may be viewed as a separate branch or as an aspect of Mahayana Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth-century India, is practiced in the countries of the Himalayan region, Mongolia, and Kalmykia. The Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1959 has led Tibetan Buddhists to live in exile in India since 1959, including His Holiness The Dalai Lama.

Buddhists celebrate several festivals throughout the year, including a Buddhist New Year, Vesak, a festival to celebrate Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, and death, and Uposatha, an observance that encourages Buddhists to recommit to the teachings.^[3]

Watch this video to learn about the basic beliefs and practices of Buddhism.

Taoism and Confucianism

Chinese Religions

The government of the People’s Republic of China officially espouses atheism, though Chinese civilization has historically long been a cradle and host to a variety of the most enduring religio-philosophical traditions of the world. Confucianism and Taoism, later joined by Buddhism, constitute the “three teachings” that have shaped Chinese culture. There are no clear boundaries between these intertwined religious systems, which do not claim to be exclusive, and elements of each enrich popular or folk religion. Following a period of enforced atheism after the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) in China, religion has recently become more popular once again. The government today formally recognizes five religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Catholicism, Protestantism and Islam (though the Chinese Catholic Church is independent of the Catholic Church in Rome). In the early twenty-first century there has also been increasing official recognition of Confucianism and Chinese folk religion as part of China’s cultural inheritance. Let’s take a closer look at two of these Chinese religious traditions: Taoism and Confucianism.

Taoism

In Taoism (also commonly written as Daoism), the purpose of life is inner peace and harmony. Tao is usually translated as “way” or “path.” Lao Tzu, sometimes written Laozi, was an ancient Chinese philosopher and writer who lived during the 6th or 4th century B.C.E., and who authored the Tao Te Ching, which remains the fundamental text on philosophical Taoism. In the Tao Te Ching, Laozi often explains his ideas by way of paradox, analogy, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm.

Taoism as an organized religion began in the year 142 C.E. with the revelation of the Tao to Zhang Daoling (Chang Tao-ling) by the personified god of the Tao, Taishang laojun, the Highest Venerable Lord (one of the three main deities). Taoism became a semi-official Chinese religion during the Tang dynasty (7th-10th centuries) and continued during the Song dynasty (960-1279). As Confucianism gained popularity, Taoism gradually fell from favor, and changed from an official religion to a popular religious tradition. ^[4]

The central concept of tao describes a spiritual reality, the order of the universe, as being in harmony with the virtues of compassion and moderation. The ying-yang symbol and the concept of polar forces are central Taoist ideas (Smith, 1991). Some scholars have compared this Chinese tradition to its Confucian counterpart by saying that “whereas Confucianism is concerned with day-to-day rules of conduct, Taoism is concerned with a more spiritual level of being” (Feng and English, 1972).

After the communist takeover of China in 1949, Taoism was banned and its followers re-educated, with the result that the number of practicing Taoists fell by 99 percent in 10 years. At this time Taoism began to flourish in the greater freedom on offer in Taiwan (a separatist island territory which had not been absorbed into the new communist China). After the end of the Cultural Revolution the Chinese government began to allow a small measure of religious freedom. Taoism began to revive in China, and Taoist temples and practitioners can now be found throughout the country. ^[5] Today, the Taoist tradition is one of the five religious doctrines officially recognized in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) as well as the Republic of China (ROC), and although it does not travel readily from its East Asian roots, it claims adherents in a number of societies, in particular in Hong Kong, Macau, and in Southeast Asia.

Taoism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture in the course of the centuries, and Taoists (Chinese: 道士; pinyin: dàoshi, “masters of the Tao”), a title traditionally attributed only to the clergy and not to their lay followers, usually take care to note the distinction between their ritual tradition and the practices of Chinese folk religion and non-Taoist vernacular ritual orders, which are often mistakenly identified as pertaining to Taoism. Chinese alchemy (especially neidan), Chinese astrology, Chan (Zen) Buddhism, several martial arts, traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui, and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history.

Watch this video to learn about Laozi (also written Lao Tzu or Lao-Tze), the founder of Daoism, and the teachings in the Tao Te Ching.

Confucianism

The founder of Confucianism (also known as Ruism), or Master Kong, better known as Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.), was a philosopher and politician. He did not intend to create a new religion, but sought to provide structure and reform to some of the religious ambiguities of the Zhou dynasty. According to Judith Berling, Professor Emerita of Chinese and Comparative Religions at the Graduate Theological Union in Berkeley, “The burning issue of the day was: If it is not the ancestral and nature spirits, what then is the basis of a stable, unified, and enduring social order?” ^[6] This sounds very familiar to founding sociologist August Comte’s question after the French Revolution—what holds society together? Confucius’ answer was in the Zhou religion and its rituals (li), which embodied the ethical core of Chinese society.

The worldly concern of Confucianism rests upon the belief that human beings are fundamentally good, teachable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor, especially self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucian thought focuses on the development of virtue in a morally organized world. Some of the basic Confucian ethical concepts and practices include rén, yì, and lǐ, and zhì. Rén (仁, ‘benevolence’ or ‘humaneness’) is the essence of the human being which manifests as compassion, and is sometimes translated as love or kindness. It is the virtue-form of Heaven, and the source of all other virtues. Yì (義/义) is the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good. Lǐ (禮/礼) is a system of ritual norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act in everyday life so as to be in harmony with the law of Heaven. Zhì (智) is the ability to see what is right and fair, or the converse, in the behaviors exhibited by others. Confucianism holds one in contempt, either passively or actively, for failure to uphold the cardinal moral values of rén and yì. Confucianism also places am emphasis on filial piety (Chinese: 孝, xiào), which is a virtue of respect for one’s parents and ancestors.

Confucianism entrenched itself in Chinese history and culture, becoming what sociologist Robert Bellah called a civil religion whereby “the sense of religious identity and common moral understanding is at the foundation of a society’s central institutions.” ^[7] Like Hinduism, Confucianism was part of the social fabric and way of life; to Confucians, everyday life was the arena of religion. Some religious scholars consider Confucianism more of a social system than a religion because it focuses on sharing wisdom about moral practices but doesn’t involve any type of specific worship; nor does it have formal holy objects.

Confucianism was the official religion of China from 200 B.C.E. until it was officially abolished when communist leaders discouraged religious practice in 1949. Like Taoism, Confucianism spread to other countries and was somewhat dormant in China for a time, but is on the rise once again.

Watch this video to learn more about Confucius and the basic tenets of the religion.

Link to Learning

For more insight on Confucianism, read the Analects by Confucius.

Judaism

Judaism is the ethnic religion of the Jewish people. It is an ancient, monotheistic, Abrahamic religion that encompasses the religion, philosophy, and culture of the Jewish people. It began over 3,000 years ago and is well known through the book of both the Torah and the Old Testament called Exodus, which describes the emancipation of the Hebrews from Egyptian captivity in the thirteenth century B.C.E. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the covenant that G-d established with the Children of Israel. It encompasses a wide body of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization. The Torah is part of the larger text known as the Tanakh, or the Hebrew Bible, and is supplemented by oral tradition represented in later texts such as the Midrash and the Talmud. The Torah consists of the five books of Moses, which are also contained in the Christian Bible. With between 14.5 and 17.4 million adherents worldwide, Judaism is the tenth largest religion in the world. It is part of the Jewish faith that one never speaks or writes out the word or name of G-d, out of reverence. G-d is referred to as “Adonai” in religious texts and prayers.

The most important teaching of Judaism is that there is one G-d, who wants people to do what is just and compassionate. Judaism teaches that a person serves G-d by learning the holy books and doing what they teach. These teachings include both ritual actions and ethical interpretative frameworks. Jews place an emphasis on moral behavior and action in this world as opposed to personal salvation in the next world. Like Hindus and Buddhists, the Jewish sages believed in non-violence and taught:  “Anyone who takes a single life, it is as though he has destroyed the entire world. And anyone who saves a single life, it is as though he has saved the entire world” ^[8]. Jews also believe in improving the world around them, as another core value is that of Tikkun olam, which translates to mean “repair” and “of all time [later translated to mean the world]”—meaning they feel an obligation to fix up the world.^[9] Another related value is that of tzedakah, which translates to mean “righteousness or justice or fairness,” but which is often mistaken for charity. The Talmud categorizes tzedakah into eight levels with the lowest level of giving as “begrudging” and the highest as “enabling the recipient to become self-reliant” ^[10] It is a mitzvah, or commandment, and is one of 613 laws.

Today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism (Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism), Conservative Judaism, and Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between these groups include their approaches to Jewish law, the authority of the Rabbinic tradition, and the significance of the State of Israel. There is a wide spectrum of devotion, practice, and even appearance within Judaism, but the most visible are Orthodox Jews because they are recognized by their outward appearance. For example, one ultra-orthodox group that emphasizes conservatism and tradition are Hasidic Jews, who have a large population in parts of Brooklyn, New York. They are recognizable by their dress code—women cover most of their bodies (shirts with sleeves below the elbows, legs covered with pantyhose, hair covered with a wig or a headscarf, and often a hat, etc.) and men wear black coats, black hats, payos or long curly sideburns, and full uncut beards (sometimes brown fur hats depending on the sect and time of year and/or holiday), and sometimes white stockings (depending on the type of Orthodox Jewish sect). At the other end of the spectrum is Reformed Judaism, which permits women to be rabbis and does not require strict observance to the laws found in the Torah.

Although Jews make up a very small percentage of the global population (0.2 percent), most people around the world are familiar with Jewish culture and practices, and some historical facts. Children all over the world are taught about the genocide that occurred during World War II when six million European Jews were killed in the Holocaust. In New York City, public schools observe many of the major Jewish holidays including Yom Kippur, Rosh Hashanah, Sukkot, and Passover. Foods associated with traditional Jewish culture like bagels and lox, knish, latkes, and babka are enjoyed widely.

Learn more about the basic beliefs and practices of Judaism in this short video:

Islam

Figure 9.The Islamic house of worship is called a mosque. (Photo courtesy of David Stanley/flickr)

Islam is monotheistic, Abrahamic religion that follows the teachings of the prophet Muhammad, born in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, in 570 C.E. Muhammad is seen as an earthly prophet, not as a divine being, and he is believed to be the messenger of Allah (God), who is divine. The followers of Islam, whose U.S. population is projected to double in the next twenty years (Pew Research Forum, 2011), are called Muslims. It has over 1.8 billion followers worldwide (24 percent of the population), making it the world’s second-largest religion. Is is one of the fastest-growing religions in the world, with Muslims expected to account for 30% of the global population by 2050.^[11] Births to Muslims between 2010 and 2015 outnumbered deaths by 152 million (213 million births vs. 61 million deaths), meaning Muslims have the highest fertility rate of any religious group at 2.9 children per woman (Christians are 2.6 children per woman and Hindu and Jewish fertility rates are 2.3) ^[12]

About 13 percent of Muslims live in Indonesia, the largest Muslim-majority country; 31 percent of Muslims live in South Asia, the largest population of Muslims in the world; 20 percent in the Middle East–North Africa region, where it is the dominant religion; and 15 percent reside in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sizeable Muslim communities are also found in the Americas, the Caucasus, Central Asia, China, Europe, Mainland Southeast Asia, the Philippines, and Russia.

Most Muslims belong to one of two denominations: Sunni (87–90 percent) or Shia (10-13 percent) (Pew Research). Following Muhammed’s death in 632 C.E., disagreements arose over would be the next caliph, or leader. Those who believed that Muhammed’s father-in-law, Abu Bakr, was the first caliph became known as Sunnis, and those who followed Muhammad’s son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib became known as Shias. Today, Shia Muslims are the majority in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, Lebanon, and Azerbaijan, as well as being a politically significant minority in Pakistan, Syria, Yemen and Kuwait.

Islam means “peace” and “submission.” The sacred text for Muslims is the Qur’an (or Koran). As with Christianity’s Old Testament, many of the Qur’an stories are shared with the Jewish faith. While divisions exist within Islam, all Muslims are guided by five core beliefs or practices, often called “the five pillars”:

1. Shahadah: the profession of faith in God. This is commonly recited, and translates to “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet.”
2. Salat: daily prayer. These prayers are performed five times a day, at set times, with the individual kneeling and prostrating in a particular pattern while facing in the direction of Mecca (the birthplace of Muhammed, and therefore of Islam itself). The five prayer times correspond to dawn, noon, afternoon, evening, and night.
3. 

   Figure 10. One of the cornerstones of Muslim practice is journeying to the religion’s most sacred place, Mecca. (Photo courtesy of Raeky/flickr)

   Zakat: almsgiving. This is given as a tithe (often around 2.5 percent of a person’s income) and is used to support holy places and mosques around the world, as well as those within the same community as the payer.

4. Sawm: fasting as a spiritual practice, as is done during the month of Ramadan. During Ramadan, Muslims do not eat or drink from sunup to sundown for an entire month. Ramadan includes special daily prayers called taraweeh, which take place at mosques and last for 1-2 hours, and a period of seclusion, or l’tikaf, during the last ten nights of the month. The fast is meant to allow Muslims to seek nearness and to look for forgiveness from God, to express their gratitude to and dependence on him, to atone for their past sins, and to remind them of the needy.[32] During Ramadan, Muslims are also expected to recommit to the teachings of Islam by refraining from violence, anger, envy, greed, lust, profane language, gossip and to try to get along with fellow Muslims better. In addition, all obscene and irreligious sights and sounds are to be avoided
5. Hajj: pilgrimage to the holy center of Mecca. The reason for this journey is to follow in the footsteps of the Prophet Muhammad, hoping to gain enlightenment as Muhammad did when he was in the presence of Allah.

While Muslims celebrate many special occasions and events, there are two specific days set aside as holy days: Eid ul Fitr and Eid ul Adha (Eid or Id is a word meaning festival). The holiday, Eid ul Fitr, marks the end of Ramadan and is a time of feasting, fine clothes, decorating one’s home, praying, and making amends. Eid ul Adha is a festival to remember the prophet Ibrahim’s (known as Abraham in Judaism and Christianity) willingness to sacrifice his son when God ordered him to do so. ^[13]

Jihad and Post-9/11

Following the 9/11 attacks in 2001 by the terrorist group Al-Qaeda, the word “jihad” has become a contentious term associated with extremists who justify their violent actions as part of a a political project, or a religious war against nonbelievers. Jihad is an Arabic word which means “to strive” or “to struggle,” especially toward a praiseworthy goal. In a broader Islamic context, it can refer to almost any effort to make personal and social life conform to God’s will, such as to struggle against one’s evil inclinations, or to undertake religious proselytizing (i.e., the spreading of the faith), or to work toward the moral betterment of the “ummah,” which refers to the entirety of the Muslim community. Despite the multiple and many benevolent applications of this idea, today it is often narrowly associated with a form of holy war, or with sacrificing one’s life for the sake of God. 

Al-Qaeda (the “base” or “foundation”) is a terrorist network of Islamic extremists and Salafist jihadists (a splinter group from Sunni Islam). Islamic extremism is not the same thing as Islam—remember that Islam, by definition, is peaceful. Al-Qaeda formed during the Soviet-Afghan War (1979-1989) and has had a strong presence at various times in different regions throughout the Middle East. It is connected with ISIS (the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, also called the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), or the Islamic State (IS)), which recently controlled large areas in Iraq and Syria, but lost nearly all of its significant territory by March 2019. ISIS claimed responsibility for the Easter suicide bombings in Sri Lanka, which killed over 250 people at churches and hotels, and has also been connected with terrorist activities in Congo, the Philippines, Nigeria, Libya, and parts of Egypt. It’s important to note that Al-Qaeda and other terrorist groups or splinter sects are not representative of Islam overall, just as extremist Christian terrorists such as the Oklahoma City bomber Timothy McVeigh are not representative of mainstream Christian beliefs.

Watch this short video to learn more about the beliefs and practices of Islam.

Christianity

The largest religion in the world is Christianity, with 2.3 billion people, or 31.4 percent of the world’s population identifying as Christian. Today, the four largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church (1.3 billion), Protestantism (920 million), the Eastern Orthodox Church (260 million) and Oriental Orthodoxy (86 million).

Christianity began 2,000 years ago in Palestine, with Jesus of Nazareth, who believers consider to be the Son of God and savior of the world. Christianity understands its namesake to be a charismatic leader who taught his followers about caritas (charity), or the principle that one should treat others as you would like to be treated yourself. Jesus, a Jew, rebelled against many of the Jewish laws and did things like heal the sick on the Sabbath—a day in which no work was to take place. Christians believe that Jesus died and was resurrected, and that Jesus’ death was necessary so that humankind can obtain salvation.

The sacred text for Christians is the Bible. While Jews, Christians, and Muslims share many of same historical religious stories, their versions of these narratives and subsequent beliefs often diverge. In their shared sacred stories, it is suggested that the son of God—a messiah—will return to save God’s followers. While Christians believe that he has already appeared in the person of Jesus Christ, Jews and Muslims disagree. While they recognize Christ as an important historical figure, their traditions don’t believe that he is the son of God, and these faiths see the prophecy of the messiah’s arrival as not yet fulfilled.

Within Christianity, different groups do not necessarily adhere to the same religious texts, though there are often important similarities among them. For instance, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, an established Christian sect, use the Book of Mormon, which they believe details other parts of Christian doctrine and Jesus’ life that are not included in the Bible. Similarly, the Catholic Bible includes the Apocrypha, a collection of texts that, while part of the 1611 King James translation, is no longer included in Protestant versions of the Bible.

The 16th-century Reformation led to Protestants, or protest-ants, breaking off from the Catholic Church. Today 40 percent of Christians are Protestants, which include Lutherans, Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists, Episcopalians, and others.

Although monotheistic, Christians often describe their god through three manifestations that they call the Holy Trinity: the father (God), the son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is a term Christians often use to describe religious experience, or how they feel the presence of the sacred in their lives. One foundation of Christian doctrine is the Ten Commandments, which decry acts considered sinful, including theft, murder, and adultery.

Christian holidays such as Christmas and Easter are widely celebrated in the United States and around the world. They are marked by gift-giving, singing, praying, decorating one’s home, and preparing specific foods associated with the holidays. Many Christians and Jews strive to go to the holy sites of Israel, as a form of pilgrimage, which is similar to a Muslim’s journey to Mecca to participate in the Hajj. Although Christians do not typically fast, Lent (or the forty days leading up to Easter) is a time of reflection and contemplation for Christians, and many choose to give up something as part of their preparation for the sacred holiday.

Like participants in other world religions, Christians have been persecuted for their beliefs, but have also historically been involved with persecuting non-Christians, such as during the Spanish Inquisition or the Crusades. Today politically volatile forms of Christian extremism, often combined with strains of nationalism and/or racism, is on the rise, with some terrorists explicitly claiming that their actions are rooted in Christian beliefs. Examples include the July, 2011 Norway attacks and the March, 2019 shootings at a mosque in Christchurch, New Zealand.

Learn more about the basic beliefs and practices of Christianity in the following video:

Further Research

PBS’s Frontline explores “the life of Jesus and the rise of Christianity” in this documentary.

glossary

agnosticism:

the belief that ultimate reality, or God, is unknowable

animism:

the religion that believes in the divinity of nonhuman beings, like animals, plants, and objects of the natural world

atheism:

the belief in no deities

civil religion:

the implicit religious values and common moral understanding shared by a nation

cults:

religious groups that are small, secretive, and highly controlling of members and have a charismatic leader

denomination:

a large, mainstream religion that is not sponsored by the state

ecclesia:

a religion that is considered the state religion

established sects:

sects that last but do not become denominations

monotheism:

a religion based on belief in a single deity

polytheism:

a religion based on belief in multiple deities

sect:

a small, new offshoot of a denomination

totemism:

the belief in a divine connection between humans and other natural beings

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