Primary sources provide data directly from experiments, interviews, surveys, and/or observations. The last three research strategies—interviews, surveys, observations—may require you to follow certain ethical protocols if you’re the person collecting data from other people.

Gathering Data from People

Interviews

Interviews may be one-to-one or small focus group question and answer sessions. Interviews provide detailed information from a small number of people and are useful when you want to get an expert opinion on your topic. For such interviews, you may need to have the participants sign an informed consent form before you begin.

Surveys/Questionnaires

Surveys are somewhat less flexible than interviews, as the questions are set ahead of time and cannot be changed. They also may be less detailed. However, surveys allow you to gather data from much larger groups of people. Like interviews, surveys require that you get participants’ informed consent before you begin.

Naturalistic Observation in Non-Public Venues

Observations involve taking organized notes about occurrences related to your research. Observations allow you to gain objective information without the potentially biased viewpoint of an interview or survey, for example with things such as prototype trials. In naturalistic observations, the goal is to be an unobtrusive as possible, so that your presence does not influence or disturb the normal activities you want to observe. If you want to observe activities in a specific work place or other non-public place, you must first seek permission from the manager of that place and let participants know the nature of the observation. Observations in public places do not normally require approval. However, you may not photograph or video people you observe without first getting their permission.

Researcher Responsibilities

Recruiting Participants

When recruiting potential participants, give them the following information before you begin:

• Your name, contact information, and affiliation
• Purpose – Describe the purpose of your research (objectives), and the benefits you hope will come from this research (overall goal). Your research should not involve any deception (e.g., claiming to be gathering one kind of information, such as “do you prefer blue or green widgets?,” but actually gathering another kind, such as “what percentage of the population is blue/green color blind?”).
• A description of data collection methods and procedures, as well an accurate estimate about the amount of time required for participation.

Note: Do not recruit from vulnerable or at-risk groups.

Informed Consent

You must get the informed consent of the people you will be surveying, interviewing, or observing in non-public venues. You may use a consent form they can sign in person, or an implied consent statement on an electronic survey. The consent form should include your name and purpose and do the following:

• Inform participants that their participation is voluntary and that they may withdraw at any time without consequence, even if they have not completed the survey or interview.

• Disclose any and all risks or discomfort that participation in the study may involve, and how these risks or discomfort will be addressed.
• Ensure that all participants are adults and fully capable of giving consent.

Managing the Data

Tell participants what will happen to the data you gather:

• In anonymous surveys, where you do not track who submitted which survey, let participants know that once they submit their survey, it cannot be retrieved and removed from the overall results.
• Let survey participants know: a) that your research results will be reported without their names and identifiers, b) where the data will be stored, c) how the data will be used and if their names will be included or cited, d) how the data will be published, and e) what will happen to the raw data once your research is complete.

Important Note: Do not collect any information not directly relevant to the research focus.

Stakeholders include any individual or group who may have a direct or indirect stake in the project, anyone who can be affected by it, or who can have an effect on the actions or decisions of the group, organization, or government. They can also be people who are simply interested in the matter, but more often they are potential beneficiaries or risk-bearers. Stakeholders can be internal, people from within the group or organization, such as owners, managers, employees, shareholders, volunteers, interns, etc. Or stakeholders can be external, such as community members or community groups, investors, suppliers, consumers, policy makers, etc. Especially when you’re creating a document whose purpose is to persuade, such as a proposal, feasibility, or recommendation report, it might be a good idea to do some primary research with stakeholders.

Stakeholders can contribute significantly to the decision-making and problem-solving processes. People most affected by the problem and most directly impacted by its effects can help you

• understand the context, issues, and potential impacts of recommended actions or solutions
• determine your focus, scope, and objectives for solutions
• establish whether further research is needed into the problem

People who are attempting to solve the problem can help you

• refine, refocus, and prioritize solution ideas
• define necessary steps to achieving proposed changes or solutions
• implement solutions, provide key data and resources

There are also people who could help make a change or solve the problem, but lack awareness of the project and their potential role. Consulting with them can help get these potentially useful resources involved during the early stages of the project.

For projects that have social, economic, and environmental impacts, primary research with stakeholders is an increasingly critical part of the planning stage. Creating an understanding of how projects will affect a wide variety of stakeholders is beneficial for both the company instigating the project and the people who will be affected by it. Listening to stakeholder feedback and concerns can be helpful in identifying and mitigating risks that could otherwise slow down or even derail a project. For stakeholders, the consultation process creates an opportunity to be informed, as well as to inform the company about local contexts that may not be obvious, to raise issues and concerns, and to help shape the objectives and outcomes of the project.

Consulting with Stakeholders

First, identify possible stakeholders. Then categorize them according to level of influence and level of support, for example:

Once you categorize potential stakeholders, you can consult. Each situation will be different so each consultation process will be context-specific, with a detailed plan. A poorly planned consultation process can backfire as it can lead to a lack of trust between stakeholders and the company. Decide on the level of consultation the situation requires:

1. Inform: Provide stakeholders with balanced and objective information to help them understand the project, the problem, and the solution alternatives. There is no opportunity for stakeholder input or decision-making.
2. Consult: Gather feedback on the information given. Level of input can range from minimal interaction (e.g., online surveys) to extensive (e.g., focus groups). Consultation can occur once or consist of ongoing or iterative opportunities to give feedback to be considered in the decision-making process.
3. Involve: Work directly with stakeholders during the process to ensure that their concerns and desired outcomes are fully understood and taken into account. Final decisions are still made by the consulting organization, but with well-considered input from stakeholders.
4. Collaborate: Partner with stakeholders at each stage of the decision making, including developing alternative solution ideas and choosing the preferred solution together. The goal is to achieve consensus regarding decisions.
5. Empower: Place final decision-making power in the hands of stakeholders. Voting ballots and referenda are common examples. This level of stakeholder engagement is rare and usually includes a small number of people who represent important stakeholder groups.

Once you determine the stakeholders and level of consultation, plan the process carefully to determine effective strategies to use and how to implement them to best achieve your goals. Ensure that strategies consider issues of accessibility and inclusivity and consider vulnerable populations. Consider legal or regulatory requirements, policies, or conditions that need to be met. Determine how you will collect, record, track, analyze, and disseminate the data.

Overall, apply the same considerations to stakeholders as you apply to gathering data from others.