Roman Gods

The gods of Rome, as with the gods of Greece and other nations who were adopted by the Romans, played an important role in the life of both Roman society and individuals. The gods of the Pantheon along with the worship of the cults and devotion to the deities of home and hearth brought stability and order to life. Maintaining observance of the various festivals and frequent rituals was every Roman’s duty, and taken as a great civic obligation. (Wasson, 2013)

The Romans adopted many of the Greek gods as their own. Religion and myth became one. Under this Greek influence, the Roman gods became more anthropomorphic – with the human characteristics of jealousy, love, hate, etc. However, this transformation was not to the degree that existed in Greek mythology. In Rome, individual expression of belief was unimportant, strict adherence to a rigid set of rituals was far more significant, thereby avoiding the hazards of religious zeal. Cities adopted their own patron deities and performed their own rituals. Temples honoring the gods would be built throughout the empire; however, these temples were considered the “home” of the god; worship occurred outside the temple. While this fusion of Roman and Greek deities influenced Rome in many ways, their religion remained practical. (Wasson, 2013)

As the empire expanded across the Balkans, Asia Minor and into Egypt, Roman religion absorbed many of the gods and cults of conquered nations, but the primary influence would always remain Greece. With only a few exceptions, most of the Roman gods had their Greek counterparts. This Roman mythology would have a significant influence on the empire – politically and socially – as well as on the future of western civilization. One needs only to look at the names of the days and months (Tuesday, Saturday, January and June), the languages of European nations, and the names of the planets (Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Pluto) to realize this influence. (Wasson, 2013)

The character of Roman religion was polytheistic. From an initial array of gods and spirits, Rome added to this collection to include both Greek gods as well as a number of foreign mystery cults. As the empire expanded, the Romans refrained from imposing their own religious beliefs upon those they conquered. This inclusion must not be misinterpreted as tolerance, however. The harsh early Roman response to the Jewish and Christian population was a sign . Eventually, all of their gods would be officially washed away, gradually replaced by Christianity, and in the eyes of some, this change brought about the decline of the western empire. (Wasson, 2013)

Somewhat unique to Roman worship were the Vestal Virgins who had no Greek counterpart. They were the guardians of the public hearth at the Atrium Vesta. They were girls chosen only from the patrician class at the tender age of six, beginning their service to the goddess Vesta at the age of ten and for the next thirty years they would serve her. (Wasson, 2013)

Besides the worship of these gods there were several cults – Bacchus, Cybele, Isis, Sarapis, Sibyl, and most of all the Imperial Cult. Some were readily accepted by Roman society while others were feared by those in power. (Wasson, 2013)

Lastly, there was the Imperial Cult. The idea of deification of the emperor came during the time of Emperor Augustus. He resisted the Senate’s attempts to name him a god during his reign as he thought himself the son of a god, not a god. Upon his death, the Roman Senate rewarded him with deification which was an honor that would be bestowed upon many of his successors. Often, an emperor would request his predecessor to be deified. (Wasson, 2013)

Religious duty and devotion to one’s gods helped to preserve the prevailing social order, encouraged the enforcement of moral values so greatly esteemed in Roman society, and permitted citizens of newly acquired territories to maintain devotion to their indigenous deities and religious festivals along with a prescribed devotion to the gods of Rome. This contributed greatly to the well-ordering and maintenance of the political and social milieu.

Roman Society

Men and women occupied traditional roles throughout the Roman rule, which were divided between a public sphere for men and the private or domestic sphere for women. Exceptions might be found for upper-class women of education, but by and large gender-role differentiation remained fixed.

Race or racial features were not of great concern in Rome with respect to one’s place in society. More attention and evidence of prejudice was directed to where one was from and one’s ethnic affiliation, whether barbarian or civilized, whether educated or non-educated, and one’s status as free or slave. These attributes determined rights and opportunities that were afforded.

“Cicero denounces Catiline,” by Cesare Maccari (1889)

The social world of the Roman Republic (c. 753 BCE–43 BCE) was based mostly on heredity and a largely fixed class system comprised of the upper Patrician class and the lower Plebian class. Social, economic, and political forces changed with the emergence of Julius Caesar (43 BCE) as emperor, and the subsequent transition of Rome from Republic to Empire. Social mobility and greater opportunity to change one’s social status followed, though not without difficulty.

Going forward in the Empire, the upper classes included Senatorial and Equestrian classes. Below these were Plebes who were freeborn and enjoyed full Roman citizenship. The Latini were those born in Italy or client states who were freeborn but were not afforded full citizenship rights. Freeborn men and women of the Roman territories were considered foreigners (peregrine) and after 212 BCE were granted citizenship rights.

Below this group were individuals who were libertini, slaves who had bought their freedom or were manumitted by their owners. Though they enjoyed few rights, their offspring were considered full citizens by birth. Lastly, slaves or the servi had no rights and little chance to advance their standing. However, as noted above, there were those individuals who could improve their economic condition and purchase their way to freedom or could be set free by their master.

Roles of Men, Women and Children

What roles would the men in your family have had in ancient Rome?

The men were the masters of the house and the family. During the day, they worked outside of the home. Rich men had roles very different from the poor men of Rome. If you had been a rich man, you would have begun your day by putting on your toga and eating a breakfast of bread, cheese, honey, and water. Before leaving for town, you would pray at the household shrine. The rich man would then begin his work, which might include writing letters to other Romans, seeing clients, and going to the forum to meet other businessmen. After a light lunch, you might take a nap, get a haircut, and finish your work for the day. In the late afternoon, all of the Roman men went to the public bathes, then home to enjoy a dinner with friends.

Poorer men were craftsmen, shopkeepers, or farmers. If you had been a poor man in ancient Rome, you would have started the day at first light. Since you could not afford to buy much food, you would eat only bread for breakfast. The rest of the day included working at the workshop or in the fields. After dinner, poor men would go to sleep so they would be ready to wake up early and work the next day. (“Rome roles of men, women and children,” n.d.)

What roles would children have had in ancient Rome?

Children of wealthy families in ancient Rome usually started school when they were seven years old. Boys stayed at school longer than girls and learned different things. For example, girls who went to school learned how to spin, weave, cook, and clean so they would be able to care for a house when they were married. Girls of poor families learned all of these things at home since they could not afford to go to school. Almost all boys, except for those of very poor families went to school to learn how to read, write in Latin and Greek, do math, and make speeches. These skills were necessary for boys who wished to get a job in the government.

When girls were 14 years old, their fathers planned a marriage for them. When they married the man chosen by their father, the girls left their house to live with their new husband and his family. Boys were not allowed to marry until they were 15 years old. At this time, they were also allowed to vote and get a job. (“Rome roles of men, women and children,” n.d.)

What roles would women have had in ancient Rome?

Unlike men, women were expected to stay at home every day so they could complete the chores around the house and watch the children while their husbands were at work. Very few women were allowed to hold jobs such as being a teacher or doctor.

Roman women had a very limited role in public life. They could not attend, speak in, or vote at political assemblies and they could not hold any position of political responsibility. While it is true that some women with powerful partners might influence public affairs through their husbands, these were the exceptions. (“Rome roles of men, women and children,” n.d.)

Patron – Client Social Relations

The patron-client relationship was also a major instrument for the public display of status. The Romans called mutual support between upper-class men of relative—though competitive—equality amicitia, “friendship.” However, nearly every aspect of Roman life was affected by the widespread system of patronage, based on publicly acknowledged inequality between patron (patronus) and client (cliens); the prevalence of patronage in Roman society was both a result and a cause of its hierarchical, status-conscious nature, as well as of the wide gulf between the upper and lower classes. (McManus, 2009)

Much can be discerned in the highly hierarchical social world of the classical period in which one’s designation in society was largely fixed and based on heredity and parentage. Exceptions are evident, and the possibility to ascend or descend (e.g., enslavement) the social hierarchy come into play as improvement in social status is possible through gaining sufficient economic means to free oneself or to be so freed by the process of manumission. Those who were born and socialized in Greek and Roman society would view social status as given and largely fixed with the noted exceptions.

Icon depicting Emperor Constantine (center) and the Fathers of the First Council of Nicaea (325) as holding the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed of 381.

Constantine Recognizes Christianity in 313 CE; Theodosius Declares Christianity as Official Religion of Roman Empire in 380 CE

With the ascendancy of Constantine, the religious landscape and hierarchy experienced the beginning of a sea change. As Constantine became the Western Roman Emperor (with the split from Greek Orthodox Christianity in the East) he used his authority to change the condition and status of Christianity. With the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, he officially gave Christianity legal status allowing freedom of worship around the empire. Emerging thus from the shadows and catacombs, Christianity quickly became the religion of choice for many individuals seeking to get ahead in Roman life. Religious observance and practice of traditional religion as it was for many in Rome continued, however, to coexist at this time. It is not until 380 CE under emperor Theodosius that Christianity was declared the official religion of the empire with the issuing of the Edict of Thessalonica.