The human quest to understand how the universe works has long quickened the beat of the human heart and intrigued the human mind. Society has been the beneficiary of that ongoing quest for understanding. For example, in the Renaissance, the world of alchemy laid the foundation to the study of chemistry seeking to investigate metallurgy, the creation of inks, dyes, paints, cosmetics, and liquors. Investigators in the Renaissance, as natural philosophers, sought to transmute common substances into precious metals, such as changing copper into gold. These searches were precursors to our current field of chemistry. Robert Boyle published his “corpuscularian hypothesis,” whereby the proper arranging of the composite corpuscles would lead to achieving the intended results. By carefully recording and publishing his experiments, he and others such as Roger Bacon helped advance the study of natural philosophy to produce what in the early 1800s would come to be called “science” (Feder, n.d.).

The concept of “scientific method” emerged where results published by one “scientist” could be expanded on by another, leading to “progress.” Through this process, the body of scientific knowledge would be expanded. As science took on quantitative methods which could test results and prove them true or false, science proceeded by means of “conjectures and refutations.” Karl Popper later came to describe this as the creation of a theory or explanation which when empirically tested could be disproven, so that science methodology would seek that which was ‘‘falsifiable” (Feder, n.d.).

In the nineteenth century the ability to predict and control the powers of nature in the achievement of scientific and technical discoveries fit with the liberal faith to use the power of reason to command nature for human ends. Reason as the guiding light of the Enlightenment, however, was not necessarily prepared for the findings of scientific discovery that might go against the conventions of reason as they then understood it—or to be used for purposes that were beyond the pale of Enlightenment thinking.

M6 – Discussion 1: Beyond Darwin: Eugenics, Social Darwinism, and the Social Theory of the Natural Selection of Humans

Galton, Spencer and other 19th century thinkers believed that the new discoveries about evolution and genetics could be used in the service of social progress. Over the following century, however, these ideas in the form of eugenics and “Social Darwinism” became associated with widespread human rights abuses and genocide during World War II. Does this mean that the original ideas upon which these perspectives were based were somehow flawed? How else can we account for these disastrous consequences? For ideas about this topic, you can start with the following link. Many others are available as well. Be sure to cite your sources.

Beyond Darwin: Eugenics, Social Darwinism, and the Social Theory of the Natural Selection of Humans

http://blogs.britannica.com/2009/02/beyond-darwin-eugenics-social-darwinism-and-the-social-theory-of-the-natural-selection-of-humans/

M6 –Discussion 2: Communism, Socialism, Fascism, and Democracy

In this discussion, you will grapple with definitions of different political structures. Remember, you are only touching the surface when you get definitions. You have already learned in this course (Module 1) that the denotation of a concept is different from its connotation. Two web sites are immediately useful. Please find others that inform your discussion.

Pose a question for the class about these different political systems that you think is informed, at least in part, by the material in this course. Make it reflective so it requires some integration of thought.

https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/engl_258/lecture%20notes/capitalism%20etc%20defined.htm

https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/11/prin-com.htm

M6 – Assignment 6: How the Other Half Lives

Using “How the Other Half Lives”(Below):

1) Review the photograph section at the beginning,

2) Read the Introduction, the concluding chapter XXV and two other chapters of your choice with a review of the key arguments.

3) Describe how the book reflects living conditions of the times and your understanding of how social reform measures sought to improve the lot of the underclass.

Cf. https://www.historyonthenet.com/authentichistory/1898-1913/2-progressivism/2-riis/