People increasingly viewed their own nationality not only as unique but also with pride and a desire that state borders should correspond to the different nationalities of Europe. The qualities that defined a nation included-in some cases-a sense of territoriality and a common language, along with shared sense of history and culture. Many possessed common national anthems, songs, and a shared literary tradition. While nationalism was still largely overlooked by European leaders especially at the Congress of Vienna, it became a call to action among those denied their own state. The Greeks rose up against their Ottoman rulers in 1821. Taking advantage of a newly sympathetic Europe enthralled by ancient Greece and using friends to popularize their cause, especially those in Britain, the Greeks achieved their independence in 1830. The Irish also began demanding and then fighting for their independence over the course of the 19th century and rebelled against the British in 1798, 1803, 1848, 1882 and 1916 in a century long question for independence.

Johann Gottlieb Fichte: To the German Nation, 1806: The first, original, and truly natural boundaries of states are beyond doubt their internal boundaries. Those who speak the same language are joined to each other by a multitude of invisible bonds by nature herself, long before any human art begins; they understand each other and have the power of continuing to make themselves understood more and more clearly; they belong together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole.

During this period, new states were formed and the state as an institution grew in power. The state became increasingly difficult to overthrow and interacted with people in new ways. To regulate and provide order to society, to prevent revolutions and from being overthrown, as well as to increasingly extract taxes from citizens, states grew in size and scope. As state power grew, it needed more taxes. For example the treasury department of the United Kingdom went from producing treasury notes to legal tenders. The bureaucracy was based on the principles of meritocracy and rational efficiency. Police forces were now developed to deal with a perception of more crime, protect people from political radicals, and provide a sense of order in the midst of an increasingly chaotic society.

New states were formed mostly to the demands of the people and the effective leadership of certain individuals. In the future state of Italy, Giuseppe Mazzini demanded that the unification of Italy should be centered on the needs of the people and not the expansion of a particular monarch. At the same time, Count Camillo di Cavour strove to expand the authority of King Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont and Sardinia. He collaborated with France to limit the power of Austria in the north. Napoleon III helped Piedmont defeat the Austrians and expanding the influence of Piedmont throughout northern Italy. Giuseppe Garibaldi led a revolt against the King of the Two Sicilies, taking Naples itself. He combined his forces with that of Piedmont to form a united Italian state.

Figure 5: The proclamation of the German Empire

In Germany, Kaiser William I and Otto von Bismarck engineered a united state under Prussian rule with a strong bureaucracy and limited democracy. Bismarck rallied the nationalist efforts of the Germans by creating a sense of internal unity through external conflict. He unified the southern part of the country through a war against Denmark. He then brought in the northern part of the country through a war in the south against the Austrians. He further unified the country through a war against France that led to a quick defeat for the French in the Franco-Prussian War, whereby Germany seized the French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. The German state was declared in Versailles in 1871. The German middle class accepted the conservative rule of the Prussian king and nobility-although there was a parliament with little authority-due to the hopes of the economic advantages that the new, larger state would bring.

Figure 6: Otto von Bismark

Figure 7: Europe in 1871

The national governments of the United States and Japan also increased greatly in power as they took authority away from local units and asserted their supremacy.

This growth was checked by the development of constitutional rule of law and citizens who increasingly demanded a voice in the political life of the country. There was national developed through a sense of a shared past that included the invention of traditions regarding past events. For example, the British invented traditions regarding the monarchy to give it a sense of timelessness and respect that did not exist before the Victorian era. Connected with this new concern regarding the history of the nation, was a sense that any one nation was somehow the best and contained notions of superiority.National superiority was characterized by elements such as, the British possessed the largest empire and best merchants, the Germans claimed to be best in war, the French possessed the greatest civilization.

States endeavored to further expand their military and universal conscription became a major aspect of the developing state. In addition to dealing with external threats states also came up with ways to prevent internal threats. For instance, they drafted all 18-year-old males; hence, providing a forum through which young men from throughout the entire country could meet and bond in a manner that would otherwise be impossible.

Figure 8: A Czech Child’s National Costume

State-sponsored schools also increased allowing people greater access to education. Businesses owners and factory managers wanted a workforce with greater basic literacy and math skills, especially as work became more complex. Schools also taught ideas regarding the importance of time. States wanted to combat the appeal of the revolutionary ideologies such as Marxism, through the inculcation of nationalism and the teaching of subjects such as history that highlighted the greatness of the nation. Through the education system, traditions were invented and students were exposed to ideas and concepts deemed important by the states. Thus, states used education to win the loyalties of people and prevent any future outbreak of rebellion.

Literacy rates rose dramatically throughout Europe, especially Western Europe, over the course of the 19th century. While only 12% of the people in the world could read and write in 1820, today the number is quite high: only 17% of the world population remains illiterate. Italy had a 22% literacy rate in 1820 and over 40% in 1900. France went from a 38% in 1820 to 70% in 1870 and the UK increased from 53% in 1820 to 76% in 1870. Many colleges and universities were founded, they became more accessible even as governments developed teaching programs. However, the focus remained on primary school education. Jules Ferry of France required all children-male and female-to attend school until the age of 15. He used the schools to push republican ideology, mostly by moving children from Catholic schools to the state-backed secular ones. In the second half of the 19th century states worked on increasing the quality of education as well.

Class characteristics

The middle class and the working class created by the Industrial Revolution began to take on different characteristics which led to the formation of class-based identities. Although class was neither united nor homogeneous-the middle class ranged from small shop owners to big factory owners- many commonalities existed. The main goal of the middle class was to remain hold the middle economic status of the nation and pass this status on to their children. The various classes lived in different areas of the city, either in fashionable suburbs or near the workplace, played different sports, supported different teams and possessed divergent political views. Simply, each class viewed each other with suspicion and derision and class mobility was difficult. The working class was seen as lazy while the middle class viewed their hard work as the reasons for their success. Middle class was proud and protective of its political power; while the working class was denied this political power.

As a result, the middle class began having few children-on average 3-as raising children in a middle class was increasingly expensive. Both sexes were now allowed to function as children in the modern sense-play, enjoy rooms dedicated to children, and did not have to work. Boys and girls were expected to attend school, which was growing in importance during this era. Males were then expected to attend an elite secondary school and university. This enabled them to receive the education that middle class occupations, especially being a doctor or lawyer, required. More occupations were available to females during this era, such as nurses and teachers, that required an advanced education as well. Nevertheless, much of the costs associated with female children was connected back to the expected dowry. In contrast, the children of poor families were expected to work. Moreover, the working class families tended to have more children. Infant mortality rates remained high during this era,20% of children died before the age of 2 years, due to disease, food shortage, or accidents. As the children grew, European governments demanded that they attend school, much to the anger of the families and often the children themselves.Nevertheless, only a few of them advanced past secondary school. Despite most of them leaving school early, Sunday schools, night schools, mutual improvement societies, and reading clubs helped in the continuation of education. For instance, unlike the formal education in the school environment, up to about 75% of the youths from the working class households in Britain attended Sunday School in the 1850s. Privacy was unheard of as multiple generations shared only a few rooms, often working in the same space. The children often worked in the same occupations as their parents, although females increasingly left the workplace over the course of the 19th century, and inherited their working class values, characteristics, and identity.

Crime

Figure 9: John Thurtell and his accomplices

Associated with a rising gap between the middle and working class were the new concerns over crime. While rates of criminality only slightly increased over the course of the 19th century, the perception was that the large cities that possessed large numbers of the working class were increasingly dangerous and even deadly. This fear was compounded by the fact that people no longer knew their neighbors, how to deal with danger. Also pushing this fear were the common newspapers and books. Editors realized that gruesome incidents made quick sales for the papers and demanded more blood in the stories told by their writers. Novelists also recognized the appeal of murder and authors such as Edward Lloyd wrote novels full of blood that were targeted at the working class. Finally, new technologies, especially chemicals and poison increased fears that people would be murdered without even knowing, especially by disgruntled servants. Even though these cases were quite rare, when there were such instances, they received a great deal of attention. Fears of death from war, starvation, or disease were replaced by fears of being murdered either inside or outside of the home. Many people even owned products associated with famous murders. For example, a mug commemorating John Thurtell was quite popular. A shady character to begin with, Thurtell killed his friend in 1823 after a dispute over money. Captivated by his charisma and interesting story, 40,000 people witnesses his hanging. The media also highlighted the story of William Corder, who killed his lover after promising to elope with her. He buried her body beneath a barn while telling her parents that she was living with him. Murder stories formed a key component of the media industry during this era and contributed to the perception of the criminally chaotic cities. The most infamous murderer was Jack the Ripper. Homosexual relationship, referred to as sodomy in the 19th century, was a capital offense until 1861. The Criminal Law Act of 1885 extended the law to include any sexual act between men in public or private. This crime was punishable up to 2 years in prison or hard labor. The case of Oscar Wilde, famous for his wit and as a playwright and author, highlights this issue. Despite being married and having children, Wilde’s affair with an aristocratic male lover led to his demise. After being accused by his lover’s father, Wilde sued for libel as evidence of Wilde’s affairs surfaced. He was arrested and found guilty of gross indecency, receiving two years of hard labor as punishment. His wife left him and Wilde was publicly humiliated. Laws against against homosexual acts were never repealed until the 1960s.