In comparison to the chaos of the first half of the century, the second half was comparatively peaceful, which helped further European exploration and commerce. However, people debated over the role of the monarch, whose role went from increasingly absolute to increasingly beholden to elected bodies depending on the location. Simply, a monarch such as Peter the Great could build an entirely new city while the British King Charles I was executed by Parliament.

Figure 4: Louis XIV and Family

On one hand, the monarchs in much of continental Europe — Prussia and Austria but especially France and Russia — became much stronger to the degree that they divinely appointed or ordained absolute rulers. The political calculation was clear: the monarch would provide for peace and stability in the kingdom and introduce centralizing tendencies that strengthened the power of the national government. This was in exchange for the support of the nobility who, in return, would have increased power over their subjects or could pass any tax increases on to them. For example, in Russia, Czar Peter the Great worked to Westernize the country, improve the military (including increasing the size of the army to over 200,000 men and building a navy), brought the church under state control, and suppressed peasant rebellions. In France, Louis the XIV, known as the Sun King, worked to further develop the strength of the national government. Both developed their own prestigious projects, the building of Versailles and St. Petersburg, at an enormous expense to the country and without concern of the lives of the peasants (as the builders themselves often died of malaria) who were involved in its contribution.

On the other hand, the Dutch Republic and England experienced the opposite extreme. When King Charles I of England overstepped his boundaries, ruled without the consent of Parliament, and seemed to promote the Roman Catholic faith, the forces of Parliament rebelled. After winning the civil war, Charles was subjected to a trail. This was the only time in European history that a sitting monarch was tried and executed. This rose interesting questions: could the king be killed? What charges could he be condemned for? Was the court even legitimate? Could Parliament continue to assert itself? Furthermore, the House of Commons became the dominant political force in businesses. Many ministers of Parliament were elected from “rotten boroughs” and simply bought their way into Parliament. Most people, including men, still did not possess the right to vote. Political parties began to emerge, and people sharing a political ideology started to ally with each other.

The British army and navy grew during the 1700s. The state became more efficient in raising large sums of money-they realized that borrowing money was a quick and efficient manner to pay for wars that also allowed investors to make money and limited the scope of tax increases. Customs taxes (on imported goods) allowed for more government revenue, despite smuggling. The government bureaucracy also grew in size but also offices and their requirements more clearly defined, requiring an education and expertise more important than family connections (although political patronage still continued and the army still allowed the nobility to purchase commissions). These careers allowed government officials to raise up an advance in social class and economic wealth based on their skills.

In the Dutch Republic, political power similarly lay with the wealthy merchants and bankers that benefited from the mercantile economy. Such a group ensured that the monarch did not develop large amounts of power. They developed a reputation for religious toleration that attracted a large number of Jews and French Huguenots and ensured safety. In the Dutch and British cases, the calculation was different. The nobility was comparatively weaker and the rising middling class of merchants and bankers were stronger. If these people would pay for any tax increases, they wanted a say in the passage of such taxes. With colonies in Africa, Asia and the New World, the Dutch became the world leaders in commerce during the first half on the 17th century.