In the last decades of the 18th century, France faced many problems. All of these problems contributed to the outbreak of revolution. While still a formidable world power, the country accrued a massive debt due to its engagement in a series of wars (including the Seven Years’ War and the American Revolution) and to the lavish spending of the monarchy. The tax system in France was inefficient, which only hindered the country’s ability to fix its finances. Members of the nobility and clergy were exempt from paying taxes, tax codes varied from region to region, and landowners collected their own taxes. Therefore, commoners were paying high taxes, but the money was not going into the national treasury; it was going into the pockets of landowners. The privileges enjoyed by the nobility angered the commoners, especially the emerging bourgeois, who had wealth and education, but were denied a political voice. The rural and urban poor were further angered by food shortages that plagued the country after climate changes destroyed crops. All of these problems were only exacerbated by what the people of France perceived to be a corrupt and ignorant monarchy that was oblivious to the suffering of its subjects.

The King of France at the outbreak of the Revolution was King Louis XVI of the Bourbon line of Kings, and he was married to Marie Antoinette of Austria. The pair was beset with scandal from the beginning of their marriage, due to the delay in consummating their marriage and constant rumors of affairs. Louis was also an indecisive and weak King with little interest in politics. Perhaps if Louis had been a stronger monarch he could have led France past its crises, but he was not the man for the job. He also reigned in the time of the Enlightenment which centered on ideas like natural rights, separation of church and state, and representative governments. While attempts were made to pass reforms, the country was headed toward revolution and things came to a head in 1789.

King Louis XVI called together the Estates General, which was a general assembly comprised of representatives from the three estates of France- the nobility, clergy, and commoners. The elected deputies from each estate gathered at the Palace of Versailles to discuss possible reforms, but the assembly faced too many issues to overcome. In the past each estate received one collective vote, but the Third Estate (commoners) felt this was unfair because they represented the vast majority of the population. The deputies of the Estates General could not reach a compromise when it came to voting, forcing members from the Third Estate to break off and form the National Assembly in June of 1789, which vowed to write a new constitution for France and to establish a constitutional monarchy. Several deputies from the nobility and members of the clergy joined the National Assembly hoping to reform France.

While the National Assembly worked to write a new constitution, an endeavor that took them two years to complete, the people of Paris grew agitated. Continued food shortages combined with King Louis XVI decisions to fire a popular finance minister and to assemble troops outside of Paris, led to the Storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789. Men, women, and children in Paris feared the King was planning to disband the National Assembly so they went to the Bastille to demand arms. When denied these arms, the people stormed the prison killing the royal guards. This act of popular violence strengthened the National Assembly, making the King realize that if he did not support the revolution, his people would rise up against him. This event also set a dangerous precedent for the Revolution, which would be marked by violence. Shortly after the storming of the Bastille, a wave of violence swept through the countryside, as peasants attacked manor houses, destroying old feudal documents stating what was owed to the landowners. In order to quell this violence, and to win support for the Revolution, the National Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen in August of 1789. This document was created to justify the actions of the National Assembly and to educate the public regarding the goals of the Revolution. The revolutionaries wanted to create a new French society founded upon the principles of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, where citizens would have a political voice, would be equal under the law, and would have certain inalienable rights like freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the right to a fair trial. The declaration was widely distributed around France and abroad influencing other revolutions (most notably the Haitian Revolution) and serving as a model for later constitutions worldwide.

Figure 16: The Storming of the Bastille

The next few years in France were relatively calm, as the National Assembly (which along with the monarchy had been moved to Paris) worked to establish a constitutional monarchy and write a new constitution. However, recreating French society would prove a difficult task. The first stage of the Revolution was dominated by liberal minded members of the bourgeois and nobility, who wanted to keep power in the hands of educated elites. They clashed with the urban and rural lower classes who strengthened the position of the National Assembly through the use of popular violence, and wanted a political voice in return. The Liberal stage of the Revolution also saw the collapse of the twin pillars of the Old Regime (the Monarchy and the Catholic Church) as both institutions saw their power and influence greatly diminished. Sovereignty was no longer found in the person of the King, it was now found within the people of France, and King Louis was slow to accept the changes being made. Could a constitutional monarchy work with an unsupportive King who dragged his feet when it came to legislation and was potentially corresponding with Marie Antoinette’s family in Austria for support? The government also took over many responsibilities of the Catholic Church including charitable and educational endeavors, and the registering of births and deaths. The National Assembly also passed the Civil Constitution of the Clergy which made the Church subordinate to the state and essentially made members of the clergy state employees. The Pope condemned this piece of legislation and members of the French clergy (most of whom had been supportive of the revolution) rejected it. All members of the clergy were then forced to take an oath to France and if they refused (as the vast majority did) they were replaced. This piece of legislation really split support for the revolution, with many people arguing that the National Assembly had gone too far.

Then on June 20, 1789 King Louis XVI made a fateful decision that changed the course of the revolution. The King and his family fled Paris and were eventually discovered in the town of Varennes. The Royal family was most likely trying to make it to the Austrian border to meet up with those loyal to the monarchy. The people of France felt their King had tried to abandon them and calls for France to become a Republic were intensified.Despite the multitude of problems France faced, the National Assembly completed the Constitution of 1791. This constitution split citizens into active and passive citizens, with active citizens being the only ones allowed to vote and to hold political office. Women, based on their gender, were automatically passive citizens, while men who did not meet a minimum tax requirement were also denied the right to vote. While two thirds of adult males were granted the right to vote, the restrictions angered those who supported the revolution and were denied a political voice. This contributed to the growth of a radical lower class group called the sans-culottes who called for reforms and also called for the death of all enemies of the Revolution. Anger over the constitution of 1791 and other unpopular legislation like the Civil Constitution of the Clergy combined with continual food shortages and France’s decision to go to war with Austria and then Prussia in April of 1792 (which only exacerbated all other problems), spelled doom for the Constitutional Monarchy and pushed France further towards radicalism.During the Radical phase of the French revolution, politics in France were dominated by the Jacobin party which had the support of the sans-culottes. Fear, suspicion, and paranoia gripped the country as calls to rid France of the enemies within intensified. In the first week of September 1792, fears of Prussian advances further into France led to a bloody and violent even that tarnished the reputation of the revolution abroad, and highlighted the revolutions descent into terror. As Prussian troops advanced, radical members of the French government, which was undergoing its own transformation as the Republic took shape, promoted the idea that the prisons of Paris held counter-revolutionaries who would join the foreign forces if they reached Paris.

While legitimate counter-revolutionary threats were the intended targets (aristocrats, clergy members who refused to accept the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, spies, foreigners) mobs of sans-culottes killed prisoners indiscriminately, murdering prostitutes, debtors, juvenile delinquents, and drunks. AS radicalism grew in France, the King was stripped of his powers and eventually, after much debate, the King was put on trial for treason. The King was found guilty and was executed in January 1793. Marie Antoinette would follow him to the guillotine in October 1793. (Their young son, Louis –Charles, who royalist now referred to as King Louis XVII, was held in captivity and died in 1795 of neglect. Their daughter, Marie-Therese, was the only surviving member of the immediate royal family.) Despite the growing radicalism, under the new Republic, the Constitution of 1791 was thrown out and a new constitution was drawn up. Completed in 1793, the new constitution was unprecedented in its democratic scope, calling for universal male suffrage. However, the new constitution was put on hold while France dealt with war and domestic strife. The governing body of France, the National Convention, which came to be dominated by the Committee of Public Safety, whose prominent members included Maximilien Robespierre and Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, decided to make terror the order of the day, to rid France of all internal and external threats. In doing so, the government betrayed the very ideals the revolution was founded upon. Legislation passed revoked basic rights discussed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, such as the right to a fair trial and freedom of speech. As the number of executions by guillotine increased, the country was also engaged in a civil war after an uprising in the Vendee broke out in response to conscription and discontent with governing policies. Revolutionary forces responded with brutal force in the Vendee, killing not only enemy combatants but civilians as well. France fell under a bloody dictatorship led by the Committee of Public Safety, and eventually the people of France grew weary of the constant death. Robespierre defended the harsh actions taken by the Committee arguing that terror was necessary to ensure the survival of the Republic.

Figure 17: Declaration of the Rights of Man

By the summer of 1794, France was doing well in its revolutionary war efforts, strengthening the belief that the Terror had to come to an end. Robespierre and his closest associates were arrested in July 1794 and were sent to the guillotine. The Terror was over and now the country has to move on. Thus began the period known as the Thermidorian Reaction which saw France return to the more liberal practices seen at the outset of the Revolution. A new constitution was drawn up in 1795, which was more restrictive and brought back tax requirements for voting and public office. The government vowed not to give into the sans-culottes, and wanted to return power into the hands of ‘safe men.’ Violence still plagued France though as the White Terror occurred, which targeted Jacobins and anyone seen as too far to the political left. Eventually a new executive power called The Directory was created but it lacked effective leadership and was prone to accepting bribed, leading the way for a coup-d’état in 1799 which facilitated the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769 – 1821) ironically was born outside of mainland France, in the newly conquered island of Corsica to a family of minor nobility. After graduating from the French military academy, Napoleon quickly moved up through the ranks of the military. He took advantage of the conflict and chaos that prevailed during the time of the French Revolution which had occasioned the flight of many of the officers, who were also nobles. He became known at the highest levels of the revolutionary government when he suppressed the revolt of royalist insurgents. He was soon made a general and given command of the Army of the Italy. Under his new command, he quickly defeated the Austrian and Italian forces, taking control of the entire Italian Peninsula.

Figure 18: Napoleon

Riding on his success in the Italian Peninsula, he went on to fight the British in Egypt, including a number of archaeologists in his army, before the British forced him back to France. In 1799, Napoleon led a coup against the Directory, becoming First Consul before capitalizing on his popularity to become Emperor in 1804; thus bringing the French Revolution full circle. He continued his conquest of Europe, defeating the Prussians, Russians, and Austrians, taking control over most of the continent and placing his siblings on the thrones throughout Europe. He developed an economic system of trade, known as the Continental System, to economically isolate the British and benefit the French. He further enacted a number of reforms in France, bringing back the power of the Roman Catholic Church, but also promoting legal equality under the Code Napoleon and increasing access to education. Despite his massive military success, Napoleon was unable to subdue a guerrilla campaign in Spain backed by the British. Furthermore, he remained worried over the possibility of a Russian invasion of Poland; hence, he launched an attack against Russia with over 400,000 French and allied soldiers. The Russian retreated and proceeded to burn Moscow.They also continually harassed the French troops who suffered due to the onset of winter. Napoleon was forced to withdraw, with only 40,000 soldiers returning. A new coalition of Russia, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, Great Britain, Spain, and Portugal was formed in 1813.This new formation is credited for the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig, which witnessed a combined casualties of 90,000 men. The coalition then invaded France in 1814, forcing Napoleon into exile to the island of Elba. In 1815, Napoleon escaped and seized power in France, only to be defeated at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815.

Napoleon’s speech to the Army of Italy: You have won battles without cannon, crossed rivers without bridges, made forced marches without shoes, camped without brandy and often without bread. Soldiers of liberty, only republican phalanxes [infantry troops] could have endured what you have endured. Soldiers, you have our thanks! The grateful Patrie [nation] will owe its prosperity to you. . . . But, soldiers, as yet you have done nothing compared with what remains to be done. . . .. . . Undoubtedly the greatest obstacles have been overcome; but you still have battles to fight, cities to capture, rivers to cross. Is there one among you whose courage is abating? No. . . . All of you are consumed with a desire to extend the glory of the French people; all of you long to humiliate those arrogant kings who dare to contemplate placing us in fetters; all of you desire to dictate a glorious peace, one which will indemnify the Patrie for the immense sacrifices it has made; all of you wish to be able to say with pride as you return to your villages, “I was with the victorious army of Italy!“ Friends, I promise you this conquest; but there is one condition you must swear to fulfill—to respect the people whom you liberate, to repress the horrible pillaging committed by scoundrels incited by our enemies. Otherwise you would not be the liberators of the people…

Napoleon then went on to fight the British in Egypt, including a number of archaeologists in his army, before the British forced him back to France. In 1799, Napoleon led a coup against the Directory, becoming First Consul before capitalizing on his popularity to become Emperor in 1804; thus bringing the French Revolution full circle. He continued his conquest of Europe, defeating the Prussians, Russians and Austrians, taking control over most of the continent and placing his siblings on the thrones throughout Europe. He developed an economic system of trade, known as the Continental System, to economically isolate the British and benefit the French. He further enacted a number of reforms in France, bringing back the power of the Roman Catholic Church, but also promoting legal equality under the Code Napoleon and increasing access to education.

Figure 19: Napoleon’s Conquests, Satellite States and Allied States

However, militarily, Napoleon was never able to subdue a guerrilla campaign in Spain backed by the British. Furthermore, he remained worried over the potential for a Russian invasion of Poland and launched an attack against the country with over 400,000 French and allied soldiers. The Russian retreated and even burnt Moscow, continually harassed the French troops who suffered due to the onset of winter. Napoleon was forced to withdraw, with only 40,000 soldiers returning.

Figure 20: Napoleon’s Retreat of Russia

A new coalition of Russia, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, Russia, Great Britain, Spain, and Portugal formed in 1813 and were able to defeat Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig, which witnessed a combined 90,000 causalities. The coalition then invaded France in 1814, forcing Napoleon into exile to the island of Elba. In 1815, Napoleon escaped and seized power in France, only to be defeated at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815.

Over the course of this 200 year period, Europe witnessed massive changing with regard to economics and trade, science and scientific thinking and debates over basic human rights. People throughout the world were increasingly willing to fight for this rights and demanded them in places such as the United States and France. However, for much of Eastern Europe life remained unchanged. For the poor, as well as women, African slaves, indigenous peoples and others these rights were known just impossible at this point to achievable. However, the world was a much more interconnected place in 1800 than it had been in 1600 as goods, people and ideas traveled across borders and around the world.