Glossary
absolute monarchies: governments wherein a monarch has absolute or unmitigated powerabsolute poverty: the state where one is barely able, or unable, to afford basic necessities
achieved status: the status a person chooses, such as a level of education or income
acting crowds: crowds of people who are focused on a specific action or goal
activity theory: a theory which suggests that for individuals to enjoy old age and feel satisfied, they must maintain activities and find a replacement for the statuses and associated roles they have left behind as they aged
age stratification theory: a theory which states that members of society are stratified by age, just as they are stratified by race, class, and gender
ageism: discrimination based on age
aggregate: a collection of people who exist in the same place at the same time, but who don’t interact or share a sense of identity
agricultural societies: societies that rely on farming as a way of life
alienation: an individual’s isolation from his society, his work, and his sense of self
alternative movements: social movements that limit themselves to self-improvement changes in individuals
amalgamation: the process by which a minority group and a majority group combine to form a new group
ambilineal: a type of unilateral descent that follows either the father’s or the mother’s side exclusively
anarchy: the absence of any organized government
animism: the religion that believes in the divinity of nonhuman beings, like animals, plants, and objects of the natural world
anomie: a situation in which society no longer has the support of a firm collective consciousness
anticipatory socialization: the way we prepare for future life roles
antipositivism: the view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values
anxiety disorders: feelings of worry and fearfulness that last for months at a time
ascribed status: the status outside of an individual’s control, such as sex or race
assembling perspective: a theory that credits individuals in crowds as behaving as rational thinkers and views crowds as engaging in purposeful behavior and collective action
assimilation: the process by which a minority individual or group takes on the characteristics of the dominant culture
asylum-seekers: those whose claim to refugee status have not been validated
atheism: the belief in no deities
authoritarian leader: a leader who issues orders and assigns tasks
authority: power that people accept because it comes from a source that is perceived as legitimate
automation: workers being replaced by technology
baby boomers: people in the united states born between approximately 1946 and 1964
bartering: a process where people exchange one form of goods or services for another
beliefs: tenets or convictions that people hold to be true
bigamy: the act of entering into marriage while still married to another person
bilateral descent: the tracing of kinship through both parents’ ancestral lines
biological determinism: the belief that men and women behave differently due to inherent sex differences related to their biology
bourgeoisie: the owners of the means of production in a society
bureaucracies: formal organizations characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules, and impersonality.
cancer cluster: a geographic area with high levels of cancer within its population
capital flight: the movement (flight) of capital from one nation to another, via jobs and resources
capitalism: a way of organizing an economy so that the things that are used to make and transport products (such as land, oil, factories, ships, etc.) are owned by individual people and companies rather than by the government
career inheritance: a practice where children tend to enter the same or similar occupation as their parents
carrying capacity: the amount of people that can live in a given area considering the amount of available resources
case study: in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual
caste system: a system in which people are born into a social standing that they will retain their entire lives
casual crowds: people who share close proximity without really interacting
category: people who share similar characteristics but who are not connected in any way
centenarians: people 100 years old or older
charismatic authority: power legitimized on the basis of a leader’s exceptional personal qualities
chattel slavery: a form of slavery in which one person owns another
class consciousness: the awareness of one’s rank in society
class system: social standing based on social factors and individual accomplishments
class traits: the typical behaviors, customs, and norms that define each class (also called class markers)
class: a group who shares a common social status based on factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation
clear division of labor: the fact that each individual in a bureaucracy has a specialized task to perform
climate change: long-term shifts in temperature and climate due to human activity
code of ethics: a set of guidelines that the American Sociological Association has established to foster ethical research and professionally responsible scholarship in sociology
coercive organizations: organizations that people do not voluntarily join, such as prison or a mental hospital
cohabitation: the act of a couple sharing a residence while they are not married
cohort: a group of people who share a statistical or demographic trait
collective behavior: a noninstitutionalized activity in which several people voluntarily engage
collective conscience: the communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society
colorism: the belief that one type of skin tone is superior or inferior to another within a racial group
commodification: the changing of something not generally thought of as a commodity into something that can be bought and sold in a marketplace
concentric zone model: a model of human ecology that views cities as a series of circular rings or zones
conflict theory: a theory that examines social and economic factors as the causes of criminal deviance
conformity: the extent to which an individual complies with group or societal norms
conspicuous consumption: the act of buying and using products to make a statement about social standing
constitutional monarchies: national governments that recognize monarchs but require these figures to abide by the laws of a greater constitution
constructivism: an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be
content analysis: applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as it relates to the study at hand
contested illnesses: illnesses that are questioned or considered questionable by some medical professionals
continuity theory: a theory which states that the elderly make specific choices to maintain consistency in internal (personality structure, beliefs) and external structures (relationships), remaining active and involved throughout their elder years
control theory: a theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society
conventional crowds: people who come together for a regularly scheduled event
convergence theory: a sociological theory to explain how and why societies move toward similarity over time as their economies develop
core nations: dominant capitalist countries
cornucopian theory: a theory that asserts human ingenuity will rise to the challenge of providing adequate resources for a growing population
corporate crime: crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment
corrections system: the system tasked with supervising individuals who have been arrested for, convicted of, or sentenced for criminal offenses
correlation: when a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable, but does not necessarily indicate causation
countercultures: groups that reject and oppose society’s widely accepted cultural patterns
court: a system that has the authority to make decisions based on law
credentialism: the emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain level of education, or has met certain job qualifications
crime: a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions
criminal justice system: an organization that exists to enforce a legal code
crowd: a fairly large number of people who share close proximity
crowdsourcing: the process of obtaining needed services, ideas, or content by soliciting contributions from a large group of people
cults: religious groups that are small, secretive, and highly controlling of members and have a charismatic leader
cultural capital: cultural knowledge that serves (metaphorically) as currency to help one navigate a culture
cultural deviance theory: a theory that suggests conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower-class society causes crime
cultural imperialism: the deliberate imposition of one’s own cultural values on another culture
cultural relativism: the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards, and not in comparison to another culture
cultural transmission: the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture
cultural universals: patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies
culture lag: the gap of time between the introduction of material culture and nonmaterial culture’s acceptance of it
culture of prejudice: the theory that prejudice is embedded in our culture
culture shock: an experience of personal disorientation when confronted with an unfamiliar way of life
culture: shared beliefs, values, and practices
cyberfeminism: the application to and promotion of feminism online
Davis-Moore thesis: a thesis that argues some social stratification is a social necessity
debt accumulation: the buildup of external debt, wherein countries borrow money from other nations to fund their expansion or growth goals
debt bondage: the act of people pledging themselves as servants in exchange for money for passage, and are subsequently paid too little to regain their freedom
degradation ceremony: the process by which new members of a total institution lose aspects of their old identities and are given new ones
deindustrialization: the loss of industrial production, usually to peripheral and semi-peripheral nations where the costs are lower
demedicalization: the social process that normalizes “sick” behavior
democracy: a form of government that provides all citizens with an equal voice or vote in determining state policy
democratic leader: a leader who encourages group participation and consensus-building before moving into action
demographic transition theory: a theory that describes four stages of population growth, following patterns that connect birth and death rates with stages of industrial development
demography: the study of population
denomination: a large, mainstream religion that is not sponsored by the state
dependency ratio: the number of nonproductive citizens (young, disabled, elderly) to productive working citizens
dependency theory: a theory which states that global inequity is due to the exploitation of peripheral and semi-peripheral nations by core nations
dependent variables: a variable changed by other variables
depression: a sustained recession across several economic sectors
design patents: patents that are granted when someone has invented a new and original design for a manufactured product
deviance: a violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms
diagnostic framing: a the social problem that is stated in a clear, easily understood manner
dictatorship: a form of government in which a single person (or a very small group) wields complete and absolute authority over a government or populace after the dictator rises to power, usually through economic or military might
differential association theory: a theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance
diffusion: the spread of material and nonmaterial culture from one culture to another
digital divide: the uneven access to technology around race, class, and geographic lines
disability: a reduction in one’s ability to perform everyday tasks; the world health organization notes that this is a social limitation
discoveries: things and ideas found from what already exists
discrimination: prejudiced action against a group of people
disengagement theory: a theory which suggests that withdrawing from society and social relationships is a natural part of growing old
doing gender: the performance of tasks based upon the gender assigned to us by society and, in turn, ourselves
DOMA: defense of marriage act, a 1996 u.s. law explicitly limiting the definition of “marriage” to a union between one man and one woman and allowing each individual state to recognize or deny same-sex marriages performed in other states
dominant group: a group of people who have more power in a society than any of the subordinate groups
double standard: the concept that prohibits premarital sexual intercourse for women but allows it for men
downward mobility: a lowering of one’s social class
dramaturgical analysis: a technique sociologists use in which they view society through the metaphor of theatrical performance
dyad:a two-member group
dynamic equilibrium: a stable state in which all parts of a healthy society work together properly
dysfunctions: social patterns that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society
ecclesia: a religion that is considered the state religion
economy: the social institution through which a society’s resources (goods and services) are managed
education: a social institution through which a society’s children are taught basic academic knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms
elder abuse: the act of a caretaker intentionally depriving an older person of care or harming the person in their charge
emergent norm theory: a perspective that emphasizes the importance of social norms in crowd behavior
empirical evidence: evidence that comes from direct experience, scientifically gathered data, or experimentation
endogamous marriages: unions of people within the same social category
environmental racism: the burdening of economically and socially disadvantaged communities with a disproportionate share of environmental hazards
environmental sociology: the sociological subfield that addresses the relationship between humans and the environment
epidemiology: the study of the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases
e-readiness: the ability to sort through, interpret, and process digital knowledge
established sects: sects that last but do not become denominations
ethnicity: shared culture, which may include heritage, language, religion, and more
ethnocentrism: the practice of evaluating another culture according to the standards of one’s own culture
ethnography: observing a complete social setting and all that it entails
evolutionary model of technological change: a breakthrough in one form of technology that leads to a number of variations, from which a prototype emerges, followed by a period of slight adjustments to the technology, interrupted by a breakthrough
e-waste: the disposal of broken, obsolete, and worn-out electronics
exchange theory: a theory which suggests that we experience an increased dependence as we age and must increasingly submit to the will of others, because we have fewer ways of compelling others to submit to us
exogamous unions: unions of spouses from different social categories
experiment: the testing of a hypothesis under controlled conditions
explicit rules: the types of rules in a bureaucracy; rules that are outlined, recorded, and standardized
expressive crowds: crowds who share opportunities to express emotions
expressive function: a group function that serves an emotional need
expressive leader: a leader who is concerned with process and with ensuring everyone’s emotional wellbeing
expulsion: the act of a dominant group forcing a subordinate group to leave a certain area or even the country
extended family: a household that includes at least one parent and child as well as other relatives like grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins
exurbs: communities that arise farther out than the suburbs and are typically populated by residents of high socioeconomic status
false consciousness: a person’s beliefs and ideology that are in conflict with her best interests
family life course: a sociological model of family that sees the progression of events as fluid rather than as occurring in strict stages
family life cycle: a set of predictable steps and patterns families experience over time
family of orientation: the family into which one is born
family of procreation: a family that is formed through marriage
family: socially recognized groups of individuals who may be joined by blood, marriage, or adoption and who form an emotional connection and an economic unit of society
fertility rate: a measure noting the actual number of children born
feudal societies: societies that operate on a strict hierarchical system of power based around land ownership and protection
field research: gathering data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey
figuration: the process of simultaneously analyzing the behavior of an individual and the society that shapes that behavior
filial piety: deference and respect to one’s parents and ancestors in all things
first world: a term from the cold war era that is used to describe industrialized capitalist democracies
flash mob: a large group of people who gather together in a spontaneous activity that lasts a limited amount of time
folkways: direct, appropriate behavior in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture
formal education: the learning of academic facts and concepts
formal norms: established, written rules
formal organizations: large, impersonal organizations
formal sanctions: sanctions that are officially recognized and enforced
fourth world: a term that describes stigmatized minority groups who have no voice or representation on the world stage
fracking: hydraulic fracturing, a method used to recover gas and oil from shale by drilling down into the earth and directing a high-pressure mixture of water, sand, and proprietary chemicals into the rock
frame alignment process: using bridging, amplification, extension, and transformation as an ongoing and intentional means of recruiting participants to a movement
function: the part a recurrent activity plays in the social life as a whole and the contribution it makes to structural continuity
functionalism: a theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals that make up that society
gatekeeping: the sorting process by which thousands of possible messages are shaped into a mass media-appropriate form and reduced to a manageable amount
gender dysphoria: a condition listed in the dsm-5 in which people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. this condition replaces “gender identity disorder”
gender identity: a person’s deeply held internal perception of his or her gender
gender role: society’s concept of how men and women should behave
gender: a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female
generalized other: the common behavioral expectations of general society
generalized others: the organized and generalized attitude of a social group
genocide: the deliberate annihilation of a targeted (usually subordinate) group
gentrification: the entry of upper- and middle-class residents to city areas or communities that have been historically less affluent
geriatrics: a medical specialty focusing on the elderly
gerontocracy: a type of social structure wherein the power is held by a society’s oldest members
gerontology: a field of science that seeks to understand the process of aging and the challenges encountered as seniors grow older
gerotranscendence: the idea that as people age, they transcend limited views of life they held in earlier times
gini coefficient: a measure of income inequality between countries using a 100-point scale, in which 1 represents complete equality and 100 represents the highest possible inequality
global assembly lines: a practice where products are assembled over the course of several international transactions
global commodity chains: internationally integrated economic links that connect workers and corporations for the purpose of manufacture and marketing
global feminization of poverty: a pattern that occurs when women bear a disproportionate percentage of the burden of poverty
global inequality: the concentration of resources in core nations and in the hands of a wealthy minority
global stratification: a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries as a whole
global stratification: the unequal distribution of resources between countries
globalization: the integration of international trade and finance markets
grade inflation: the idea that the achievement level associated with an a today is notably lower than the achievement level associated with a-level work a few decades ago
grand theories: an attempt to explain large-scale relationships and answer fundamental questions such as why societies form and why they change
grief: a psychological, emotional, and social response to the feelings of loss that accompanies death or a similar event
gross national income (gni): the income of a nation calculated based on goods and services produced, plus income earned by citizens and corporations headquartered in that country
group: any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity
habitualization: the idea that society is constructed by us and those before us, and it is followed like a habit
hate crimes: attacks based on a person’s race, religion, or other characteristics
Hawthorne effect: when study subjects behave in a certain manner due to their awareness of being observed by a researcher
Head Start program: a federal program that provides academically focused preschool to students of low socioeconomic status
heterosexism: an ideology and a set of institutional practices that privilege heterosexuals and heterosexuality over other sexual orientations
hidden curriculum: the informal teaching done in schools that socializes children to societal norms
hierarchy of authority: a clear chain of command found in a bureaucracy
high culture: the cultural patterns of a society’s elite
homophobia: an extreme or irrational aversion to homosexuals
horticultural societies: societies based around the cultivation of plants
hospice: healthcare that treats terminally ill people by providing comfort during the dying process
human ecology: a functional perspective that looks at the relationship between people and their built and natural environment
hunter-gatherer societies: societies that depend on hunting wild animals and gathering uncultivated plants for survival
hypothesis: a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables
ideal culture: the standards a society would like to embrace and live up to
impairment: the physical limitations a less-able person faces
impersonality: the removal of personal feelings from a professional situation
income: the money a person earns from work or investments
independent variables: variables that cause changes in dependent variables
individual mandate: a government rule that requires everyone to have insurance coverage or they will have to pay a penalty
industrial societies: societies characterized by a reliance on mechanized labor to create material goods
informal education: education that involves learning about cultural values, norms, and expected behaviors through participation in a society
informal norms: casual behaviors that are generally and widely conformed to
informal sanctions: sanctions that occur in face-to-face interactions
information societies: societies based on the production of nonmaterial goods and services
in-group: a group a person belongs to and feels is an integral part of his identity
innovations: new objects or ideas introduced to culture for the first time
institutional racism: racism embedded in social institutions
institutionalization: the act of implanting a convention or norm into society
instrumental function: being oriented toward a task or goal
instrumental leader: a leader who is goal oriented with a primary focus on accomplishing tasks
intergenerational mobility: a difference in social class between different generations of a family
internally displaced person: someone who fled his or her home while remaining inside the country’s borders
interpretive framework: a sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction; this approach is not based on hypothesis testing
intersection theory: theory that suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes
interview: a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject
intimate partner violence (ipv): violence that occurs between individuals who maintain a romantic or sexual relationship
intragenerational mobility: a difference in social class between different members of the same generation
inventions: a combination of pieces of existing reality into new forms
iron cage: a situation in which an individual is trapped by social institutions
iron rule of oligarchy: the theory that an organization is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration
kinship: a person’s traceable ancestry (by blood, marriage, and/or adoption)
knowledge gap: the gap in information that builds as groups grow up without access to technology
labeling theory: the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society
laissez-faire leader: a hands-off leader who allows members of the group to make their own decisions
language: a symbolic system of communication
latent functions: the unrecognized or unintended consequences of a social process
leadership function: the main focus or goal of a leader
leadership style: the style a leader uses to achieve goals or elicit action from group members
legal codes: codes that maintain formal social control through laws
legitimation: the act of a physician certifying that an illness is genuine
liberation theology: the use of a church to promote social change via the political arena
life course: the period from birth to death, including a sequence of predictable life events
life expectancy: the number of years a newborn is expected to live
literature review: a scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research
macro-level: a wide-scale view of the role of social structures within a society
malthusian theory: a theory asserting that population is controlled through positive checks (war, famine, disease) and preventive checks (measures to reduce fertility)
manifest functions: sought consequences of a social process
market socialism: a subtype of socialism that adopts certain traits of capitalism, like allowing limited private ownership or consulting market demand
marriage: a legally recognized contract between two or more people in a sexual relationship who have an expectation of permanence about their relationship
mass: a relatively large group with a common interest, even if they may not be in close proximity
master status: a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual
material culture: the objects or belongings of a group of people
matrilineal descent: a type of unilateral descent that follows the mother’s side only
matrilocal residence: a system in which it is customary for a husband to live with the his wife’s family
McDonaldization of society: the increasing presence of the fast food business model in common social institutions
mechanical solidarity: a form of social cohesion that comes from sharing similar work, education, and religion, as might be found in simpler societies
mechanical solidarity: a type of social order maintained by the collective consciousness of a culture
media consolidation: a process by which fewer and fewer owners control the majority of media outlets
media globalization: the worldwide integration of media through the cross-cultural exchange of ideas
media: all print, digital, and electronic means of communication
medical sociology: the systematic study of how humans manage issues of health and illness, disease and disorders, and healthcare for both the sick and the healthy
medicalization of deviance: the process that changes “bad” behavior into “sick” behavior
medicalization: the process by which aspects of life that were considered bad or deviant are redefined as sickness and needing medical attention to remedy
megachurch: a christian church that has a very large congregation averaging more than 2,000 people who attend regular weekly services
megalopolis: a large urban corridor that encompasses several cities and their surrounding suburbs and exurbs
mercantilism: an economic policy based on national policies of accumulating silver and gold by controlling markets with colonies and other countries through taxes and customs charges
meritocracy: a bureaucracy where membership and advancement is based on merit—proven and documented skills
meta-analysis: a technique in which the results of virtually all previous studies on a specific subject are evaluated together
metropolis: the area that includes a city and its suburbs and exurbs
micro-level theories: the study of specific relationships between individuals or small groups
minority group: any group of people who are singled out from the others for differential and unequal treatment
model minority: the stereotype applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching higher educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without protest against the majority establishment
modernization theory: a theory that low-income countries can improve their global economic standing by industrialization of infrastructure and a shift in cultural attitudes towards work OR a theory which suggests that the primary cause of the elderly losing power and influence in society are the parallel forces of industrialization and modernization
modernization: the process that increases the amount of specialization and differentiation of structure in societies
monarchy: a form of government in which a single person (a monarch) rules until that individual dies or abdicates the throne
money: an object that a society agrees to assign a value to so it can be exchanged as payment
monogamy: the act of being married to only one person at a time
monotheism: a religion based on belief in a single deity
mood disorders: long-term, debilitating illnesses like depression and bipolar disorder
moral development: the way people learn what is “good” and “bad” in society
morbidity: the incidence of disease
mores: the moral views and principles of a group
mortality rate: a measure of the number of people in a population who die
mortality: the number of deaths in a given time or place
motivational framing: a call to action
mutualism: a form of socialism under which individuals and cooperative groups exchange products with one another on the basis of mutually satisfactory contracts
nature: the influence of our genetic makeup on self-development
negative sanctions: punishments for violating norms
neo-luddites: those who see technology as a symbol of the coldness of modern life
net neutrality: the principle that all internet data should be treated equally by internet service providers
new media: all interactive forms of information exchange
new social movement theory: a theory that attempts to explain the proliferation of postindustrial and postmodern movements that are difficult to understand using traditional social movement theories
NGO: nongovernmental organizations working globally for numerous humanitarian and environmental causes
NIMBY: “not in my back yard,” the tendency of people to protest poor environmental practices when those practices will affect them directly
No Child Left Behind Act: an act that requires states to test students in prescribed grades, with the results of those tests determining eligibility to receive federal funding
nonmaterial culture: the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society
nonreactive research: using secondary data, does not include direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people’s behaviors
nonviolent crimes: crimes that involve the destruction or theft of property, but do not use force or the threat of force
normative or voluntary organizations: organizations that people join to pursue shared interests or because they provide some intangible rewards
norms: the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured
nuclear family: two parents (traditionally a married husband and wife) and children living in the same household
nurture: the role that our social environment plays in self-development
oligarchy: a form of government in which power is held by a small, elite group
oligopoly: a situation in which a few firms dominate a marketplace
one person, one vote: a concept holding that each person’s vote should be counted equally
operational definitions: specific explanations of abstract concepts that a researcher plans to study
organic solidarity: a form of social cohesion that arises out of the mutual interdependence created by the specialization of work
out-group: a group that an individual is not a member of, and may even compete with
outsourcing: a practice where jobs are contracted to an outside source, often in another country
panoptic surveillance: a form of constant monitoring in which the observation posts are decentralized and the observed is never communicated with directly
paradigms: philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them
participant observation: when a researcher immerses herself in a group or social setting in order to make observations from an “insider” perspective
pastoral societies: societies based around the domestication of animals
patrilineal descent: a type of unilateral descent that follows the father’s line only
patrilocal residence: a system in which it is customary for the a wife to live with (or near) the her husband’s family
patrimonialism: a type of authority wherein military and administrative factions enforce the power of the master
peer group: a group made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests
peripheral nations: nations on the fringes of the global economy, dominated by core nations, with very little industrialization
personality disorders: disorders that cause people to behave in ways that are seen as abnormal to society but seem normal to them
physician-assisted suicide: the voluntary use of lethal medication provided by a medical doctor to end one’s life
planned obsolescence: the act of a technology company planning for a product to be obsolete or unable from the time it’s created
plant patents: patents that recognize the discovery of new plant types that can be asexually reproduced
pluralism: the ideal of the united states as a “salad bowl:” a mixture of different cultures where each culture retains its own identity and yet adds to the “flavor” of the whole
polarization: a practice where the differences between low-end and high-end jobs become greater and the number of people in the middle levels decreases
police: a civil force in charge of regulating laws and public order at a federal, state, or community level
politics: a means of studying a nation’s or group’s underlying social norms as values as evidenced through its political structure and practices
pollution: the introduction of contaminants into an environment at levels that are damaging
polyandry: a form of marriage in which one woman is married to more than one man at one time
polygamy: the state of being committed or married to more than one person at a time
polygyny: a form of marriage in which one man is married to more than one woman at one time
polytheism: a religion based on belief in multiple deities
popular culture: mainstream, widespread patterns among a society’s population
population composition: a snapshot of the demographic profile of a population based on fertility, mortality, and migration rates
population pyramid: a graphic representation that depicts population distribution according to age and sex
population: a defined group serving as the subject of a study
positive sanctions: rewards given for conforming to norms
positivism: the scientific study of social patterns
power elite: a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources
power: the ability to exercise one’s will over others
prejudice: biased thought based on flawed assumptions about a group of people
primary aging: biological factors such as molecular and cellular changes
primary data: data that are collected directly from firsthand experience
primary deviance: a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual’s self-image or interactions with others
primary groups: small, informal groups of people who are closest to us
primogeniture: a law stating that all property passes to the firstborn son
private healthcare: health insurance that a person buys from a private company; private healthcare can either be employer-sponsored or direct-purchase
prognostic framing: social movements that state a clear solution and a means of implementation
proletariat: the laborers in a society
public healthcare: health insurance that is funded or provided by the government
public: an unorganized, relatively diffuse group of people who share ideas
qualitative data: comprise information that is subjective and often based on what is seen in a natural setting
qualitative sociology: in-depth interviews, focus groups, and/or analysis of content sources as the source of its data
quantitative data: represent research collected in numerical form that can be counted
quantitative sociology: statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants
queer theory: an interdisciplinary approach to sexuality studies that identifies western society’s rigid splitting of gender into male and female roles and questions its appropriateness
racial profiling: the use by law enforcement of race alone to determine whether to stop and detain someone
racial steering: the act of real estate agents directing prospective homeowners toward or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race
racism: a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices that are used to justify the belief that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others
random sample: a study’s participants being randomly selected to serve as a representation of a larger population
rationalization: a belief that modern society should be built around logic and efficiency rather than morality or tradition
rational-legal authority: power that is legitimized by rules, regulations, and laws
real culture: the way society really is based on what actually occurs and exists
recession: two or more consecutive quarters of economic decline
redlining: the practice of routinely refusing mortgages for households and business located in predominately minority communities
reference groups: groups to which an individual compares herself
reform movements: movements that seek to change something specific about the social structure
refugee: an individual who has been forced to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster
reification: an error of treating an abstract concept as though it has a real, material existence
relative poverty: the state of poverty where one is unable to live the lifestyle of the average person in the country
reliability: a measure of a study’s consistency that considers how likely results are to be replicated if a study is reproduced
religion: a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person holds to be sacred or spiritually significant
religious/redemptive movements: movements that work to promote inner change or spiritual growth in individuals
representative democracy: a government wherein citizens elect officials to represent their interests
resistance movements: those who seek to prevent or undo change to the social structure
resocialization: the process by which old behaviors are removed and new behaviors are learned in their place
resource mobilization theory: a theory that explains social movements’ success in terms of their ability to acquire resources and mobilize individuals
revolutionary movements: movements that seek to completely change every aspect of society
role conflict: a situation when one or more of an individual’s roles clash
role performance: the expression of a role
role strain: stress that occurs when too much is required of a single role
roles: patterns of behavior that are representative of a person’s social status
role-set: an array of roles attached to a particular status
samples: small, manageable number of subjects that represent the population
sanctions: a way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviors
sanctions: the means of enforcing rules
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: the way that people understand the world based on their form of language
scapegoat theory: a theory that suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group
scientific method: an established scholarly research method that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing and conducting a study, and drawing conclusions
second world: a term from the cold war era that describes nations with moderate economies and standards of living
secondary aging: aging that occurs due to controllable factors like exercise and diet
secondary data analysis: using data collected by others but applying new interpretations
secondary deviance: deviance that occurs when a person’s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society
secondary groups: larger and more impersonal groups that are task-focused and time limited
sect:a small, new offshoot of a denomination
sedimentation of racial inequality: the intergenerational impact of de facto and de jure racism that limits the abilities of black people to accumulate wealth
segregation: the physical separation of two groups, particularly in residence, but also in workplace and social functions
selective optimization with compensation theory: a theory based on the idea that successful personal development throughout the life course and subsequent mastery of the challenges associated with everyday life are based on the components of selection, optimization, and compensation
self: a person’s distinct sense of identity as developed through social interaction
self-fulfilling prophecy: an idea that becomes true when acted upon
self-report study: a collection of data acquired using voluntary response methods, such as questionnaires or telephone interviews
semi-peripheral nations: in-between nations, not powerful enough to dictate policy but acting as a major source of raw materials and an expanding middle class marketplace
senescence: the aging process, including biological, intellectual, emotional, social, and spiritual changes
sex ratio: the ratio of men to women in a given population
sex: a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females
sexism: the prejudiced belief that one sex should be valued over another
sexual orientation: a person’s physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male or female)
sexuality: a person’s capacity for sexual feelings
shaken-baby syndrome: a group of medical symptoms such as brain swelling and retinal hemorrhage resulting from forcefully shaking or impacting an infant’s head
sick role: the pattern of expectations that define appropriate behavior for the sick and for those who take care of them
significant others: specific individuals that impact a person’s life
social change: the change in a society created through social movements as well as through external factors like environmental shifts or technological innovation
social construction of race: the school of thought that race is not biologically identifiable
social construction of sexuality: socially created definitions about the cultural appropriateness of sex-linked behavior which shape how people see and experience sexuality
social control: a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms
social control: the regulation and enforcement of norms
social disorganization theory: a theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control
social epidemiology: the study of the causes and distribution of diseases
social facts: the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life
social gerontology: a specialized field of gerontology that examines the social (and sociological) aspects of aging
social institutions: patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs
social integration: how strongly a person is connected to his or her social group
social mobility: the ability to change positions within a social stratification system
social movement industry: the collection of the social movement organizations that are striving toward similar goals
social movement organization: a single social movement group
social movement sector: the multiple social movement industries in a society, even if they have widely varying constituents and goals
social movement: a purposeful organized group hoping to work toward a common social goal
social order: an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society’s members base their daily lives
social placement: the use of education to improve one’s social standing
social solidarity: the social ties that bind a group of people together such as kinship, shared location, and religion
social stratification: a socioeconomic system that divides society’s members into categories ranking from high to low, based on things like wealth, power, and prestige
socialism: an economic system in which there is government ownership (often referred to as “state run”) of goods and their production, with an impetus to share work and wealth equally among the members of a society
socialization: the process wherein people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values
socialized medicine: when the government owns and runs the entire healthcare system
society: a group of people who live in a defined geographical area who interact with one another and who share a common culture
sociological imagination: the ability to understand how your own past relates to that of other people, as well as to history in general and societal structures in particular
sociology: the systematic study of society and social interaction
sorting: classifying students based on academic merit or potential
standard of living: the level of wealth available to acquire material goods and comforts to maintain a particular socioeconomic lifestyle
status consistency: the consistency, or lack thereof, of an individual’s rank across social categories like income, education, and occupation
status: the responsibilities and benefits that a person experiences according to his or her rank and role in society
stereotype interchangeability: stereotypes that don’t change and that get recycled for application to a new subordinate group
stereotypes: oversimplified ideas about groups of people
stigmatization of illness: illnesses that are discriminated against and whose sufferers are looked down upon or even shunned by society
stigmatization: the act of spoiling someone’s identity; they are labeled as different, discriminated against, and sometimes even shunned due to an illness or disability
strain theory: a theory that addresses the relationship between having socially acceptable goals and having socially acceptable means to reach those goals
street crime: crime committed by average people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces
structural mobility: a societal change that enables a whole group of people to move up or down the class ladder
structural unemployment: a societal level of disjuncture between people seeking jobs and the jobs that are available
subculture of aging theory: a theory that focuses on the shared community created by the elderly when they are excluded (due to age), voluntarily or involuntarily, from participating in other groups
subcultures: groups that share a specific identification, apart from a society’s majority, even as the members exist within a larger society
subjective poverty: a state of poverty composed of many dimensions, subjectively present when one’s actual income does not meet one’s expectations
subordinate group: a group of people who have less power than the dominant group
subsistence farming: farming where farmers grow only enough to feed themselves and their families
suburbs: the communities surrounding cities, typically close enough for a daily commute
supercentenarians: people 110 of age or older
surveys: collect data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire
sustainable development: development that occurs without depleting or damaging the natural environment
symbolic interactionism: a theoretical perspective through which scholars examine the relationship of individuals within their society by studying their communication (language and symbols)
symbols: gestures or objects that have meanings associated with them that are recognized by people who share a culture
technological diffusion: the spread of technology across borders
technological globalization: the cross-cultural development and exchange of technology
technology: the application of science to solve problems in daily life
technophiles: those who see technology as symbolizing the potential for a brighter future
thanatology: the systematic study of death and dying
theory: a proposed explanation about social interactions or society
third world: a term from the cold war era that refers to poor, unindustrialized countries
Thomas theorem: how a subjective reality can drive events to develop in accordance with that reality, despite being originally unsupported by objective reality
total institution: an organization in which participants live a controlled lifestyle and in which total resocialization occurs
totalitarian dictatorship: an extremely oppressive form of dictatorship in which most aspects of citizens’ lives are controlled by the leader
totemism: the belief in a divine connection between humans and other natural beings
tracking: a formalized sorting system that places students on “tracks” (advanced, low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities
traditional authority: power legitimized on the basis of long-standing customs
transgender: an adjective that describes individuals who identify with the behaviors and characteristics that are other than their biological sex
transsexuals: transgender individuals who attempt to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy
triad: a three-member group
underemployment: a state in which a person accepts a lower paying, lower status job than his or her education and experience qualifies him or her to perform
underground economy: an unregulated economy of labor and goods that operates outside of governance, regulatory systems, or human protections
underinsured: people who spend at least 10 percent of their income on healthcare costs that are not covered by insurance
unilateral descent: the tracing of kinship through one parent only.
universal access: the equal ability of all people to participate in an education system
universal healthcare: a system that guarantees healthcare coverage for everyone
upward mobility: an increase—or upward shift—in social class
urban sociology: the subfield of sociology that focuses on the study of urbanization
urbanization: the study of the social, political and economic relationships of cities
utilitarian organizations: organizations that are joined to fill a specific material need
utility patents: patents that are granted for the invention or discovery of any new and useful process, product, or machine
validity: the degree to which a sociological measure accurately reflects the topic of study
value neutrality: a practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment during the course of a study and in publishing results
value-added theory: a functionalist perspective theory that posits that several preconditions must be in place for collective behavior to occur
values: a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society
victimless crime: activities against the law, but that do not result in injury to any individual other than the person who engages in them
violent crimes: crimes based on the use of force or the threat of force
wealth: the value of money and assets a person has from, for example, inheritance
white flight: the migration of economically secure white people from racially mixed urban areas toward the suburbs
white privilege: the benefits people receive simply by being part of the dominant group
xenocentrism: a belief that another culture is superior to one’s own
xenophobia: an illogical fear and even hatred of foreigners and foreign goods
zero population growth: a theoretical goal in which the number of people entering a population through birth or immigration is equal to the number of people leaving it via death or emigration
