Learning Outcomes
- Contrast the main psychological theories that apply to human development
Developmental theories provide a set of guiding principles and concepts that describe and explain human development. Some developmental theories focus on the formation of a particular quality, such as Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Other developmental theories focus on growth that happens throughout the lifespan, such as Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. It would be natural to wonder which of the perspectives provides the most accurate account of human development, but clearly, each perspective is based on its own premises and focuses on different aspects of development. Many lifespan developmentalists use an eclectic approach, drawing on several perspectives at the same time because the same developmental phenomenon can be looked at from a number of perspectives.
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In the table below, we’ll review some of the major theories that you learned about in this module. Recall that three key issues considered in human development examine if development is continuous or discontinuous, if it is the same for everyone or distinct for individuals (one course of development or many), and if development is more influenced by nature or by nurture. The table below reviews how each of these major theories approaches each of these issues.
Table 1. Major Theories in Human Development[1]
| Theory | Major ideas | Continuous or discontinuous development? | One course of development or many? | More influenced by nature or nurture? | Major Theorist(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Psychosexual theory | Behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people’s awareness and control. Emphasizes the unconscious, defense mechanisms, and influences of the id, ego, and superego. | Discontinuous; there are distinct stages of development | One course; stages are universal for everyone | Both; natural impulses combined with early childhood experiences impact development | Sigmund Freud |
| Psychosocial theory | A person negotiates biological and sociocultural influences as they move through eight stages, each characterized by a psychosocial crisis: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, ego integrity vs. despair. | Discontinuous; there are distinct stages of development | One course; stages are universal for everyone | Both; natural impulses combined with sociocultural experiences impact development | Erik Erikson |
| Classical conditioning | Learning by the association of a response with a stimulus; a person comes to respond in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response. | Continuous; learning is ongoing without distinct stages | Many courses; learned behaviors vary by person | Mostly nurture; behavior is conditioned | Ivan Pavlov, John Watson |
| Operant conditioning | Learning that occurs when a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences. Rewards and punishments can strengthen or discourage behaviors. | Continuous; learning is ongoing without distinct stages | Many courses; learned behaviors vary by person | Mostly nurture; behavior is conditioned | B.F. Skinner |
| Social cognitive theory (social learning theory) | Learning occurs in a social context; considering the relationship between the environment and a person’s behavior. Learning can occur through observation. | Continuous; learning is gradual and ongoing without distinct stages | Many courses; learned behaviors vary by person | Mostly nurture; behavior is observed and learned | Albert Bandura |
| Piaget’s theory of cognitive development | A theory about how people come to gradually acquire, construct, and use knowledge and information. It describes cognitive development through four distinct stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal. | Discontinuous; there are distinct stages of development | One course; stages are universal for everyone | Both; natural impulses combined with experiences that challenge the existing schemas | Jean Piaget |
| Information processing | A theory that seeks to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information (sometimes compared to a computer). It is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely respond to stimuli. | Continuous; cognitive development is gradual and ongoing without distinct stages | One course; the model applies to everyone | Both; natural cognitive development combined with experiences of processing information in new and different ways | Richard Atkinson, Richard Shiffrin |
| Humanistic theories | Theories that emphasizes an individual’s inherent drive towards self-actualization and contend that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their own behavior. Key terms and concepts include unconditional positive regard, striving for “the good life,” and the hierarchy of needs. | Continuous; development is ongoing without distinct stages and can be multidirectional depending on environmental circumstances | Mostly one course; Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is universally applied, but there is an individual course for self-actualization | Mostly nurture; development is influenced by environmental circumstances and social interactions | Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow |
| Sociocultural theory | Vygotsky’s theory that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture. Key terms and concepts include the zone of proximal development and scaffolding. | Both, but mostly continuous as an individual learns and progresses | Many courses; there are variations between individuals and cultures | Both; development is influenced by biological preparation and social experiences | Lev Vygotsky |
| Bioecological systems model | Urie Bronfenbrenner’s theory stressing the importance of studying a child in the context of multiple environments, or ecological systems. It is organized into five levels of external influence: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. | Both; the influence of each system can be continuous or discontinuous depending on the system in question | Many courses; the interaction of people and the environment varies | Both; a person’s biological potential and the environment interact to impact development | Urie Bronfenbrenner, Stephen Ceci |
| Evolutionary psychology theory | A theory that seeks to identify behavior that is a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. | Continuous; current behaviors have been shaped over multiple generations based on successful survival and reproduction | Both; behavioral genetics show similarities across the species, but our unique family history also plays a role in development | Both; our genetic history and biological impulses interact with life experiences to produce individual development and development across the history and future of the species | Charles Darwin, David Buss, Konrad Lorenz, Robert Sapolsky |
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- Berk, L. E. (1998). "Stances of Major Theories on Basic Issues in Human Development."Development through the lifespan. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. p. 26. ↵